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Residential building material stocks and component-level circularity: The case of Singapore The residential built environment plays a crucial role in supporting many human activities. In urban areas however, high-rise residential buildings require significant investment of material resources, which are stacked for a long time over the building's lifetime. Assessing the Material Stock (MS) of buildings has been the focus of several studies for insights into in-use materials and their potential availability as secondary resources. The study of material circularity, or the potential to reuse materials emerging from end-of-life buildings, has so far been mostly limited to metals. This study argues that material stock analysis at individual material or material categories e.g. mineral, or metals, need to be complemented with building component stock estimations to enhance the potential for secondary resource recovery. Based on a bottom-up stock analysis approach, we estimate both the material and component stock of public housing developments in the city-state of Singapore and associated annual in- and out-flows. Results show that public housing in this city, which accommodates over 80 percent of its residents, accounts for 125.7 million tons of non-metallic minerals, 6.52 million tons of steel, 6.45 million windows, 8.61 million doors, 1.97 million toilet accessories, 15.33 million lighting fixtures, 0.99 million kitchen accessories (such as cookstove, kitchen cabinets) and 52.54 million m2 of tiles. The average stock of materials for these residential buildings is estimated at 27.4 tons of non-metallic minerals per capita and 1.4 tons of steel per capita. The average annual inflow of materials has been estimated to be 1.94 million tons for concrete and 0.1 million tons of steel, with a considerably low outflow of 0.31 million tons concrete and 0.02 million tons of steel, implying growth in these material stocks. This study provides a methodological approach to quantify building material and component stock and flows, which can be used by policy makers, urban planners and designers to consider responsible resource consumption. In particular, material and component stock estimations like that reported in this study contribute towards component-level circularity in the built environment.	Residential building material stocks and component-level circularity: The case of ...	Arora, Mohit; Raspall, Felix; Cheah, Lynette; Silva, Arlindo	Journal Article	academic	2019	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Urban
The weight of islands: Leveraging Grenada's material stocks to adapt to climate change The building stock consumes large amounts of resources for maintenance and expansion which is only exacerbated by disaster events where large‐scale reconstruction must occur quickly. Recent research has shown the potential for application of material stock (MS) accounts for informing disaster risk planning. In this research, we present a methodological approach to analyze the vulnerability of the material stock in buildings to extreme weather events and sea‐level rise (SLR) due to climate change. The main island of Grenada, a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) in the Caribbean region, was used as a case study. A bottom‐up approach based on a geographic information system (GIS) is used to calculate the total MS of aggregate, timber, concrete, and steel in buildings. The total MS in buildings in 2014 was calculated to be 11.9 million tonnes (Mt), which is equivalent to 112 tonnes per capita. Material gross addition to stock (GAS) between 1993 to 2009 was 6.8 Mt and the average value over the time period was 4.0 tonnes per capita per year. In the year following Hurricane Ivan (2004), the per capita GAS for timber increased by 172%, while for other metals, GAS spiked by 103% (compared to average growth rates of 11% and 8%, respectively, between 1993 and 2009). We also ran a future “Ivan‐II” scenario and estimated a hypothetical loss of between 135 and 216 kilotonnes (kt) of timber from the building stock. The potential impact of SLR is also assessed, with an estimated 1.6 Mt of building material stock exposed under a 2‐m scenario. We argue that spatial material stock accounts have an important application in planning for resilience and provide indication of the link between natural disaster recovery and resource use patterns.	The weight of islands: Leveraging Grenada's material stocks to adapt ...	Symmes, Rob; Fishman, Tomer; Telesford, John N.; Singh, Simron J.; Tan, Su‐Yin; De Kroon, Kristen	Journal Article	academic	2019	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series
Spatially explicit material stock analysis of buildings in Eastern China metropoles China is experiencing a period of rapid urbanization and fervent construction activities, which are responsible for the accumulation of large amount of material stocks (MS). Fundamental in every society, buildings not only shape material flows before and during construction, but also during maintenance and demolition, inducing the extraction of resources and the production of construction waste. It is thus imperative to understand the amount, composition, and location of current building MS as a first step to design appropriate management strategies for an environmentally sustainable society. This research uses the latest GIS dataset of buildings in 14 representative Eastern China metropoles to quantify the current status of building MS by employing a bottom-up method. The selection of the study areas relies on the law of the primate city, which permits to quickly target the most important urban areas of a region. We review and discuss existing material intensity (MI) coefficients for Chinese buildings, and produce a new set of MIs manipulating those available in the literature. We then calculate the total MS, MS density, and per capita MS for each city. Results find that in 14 cities 7.9 Gt of building materials are currently stored in a total area of 3790 km 2 , resulting on an average density of 2.1 Mt/km 2. The per capita building MS results being 283 t/cap, and this value correlates with a growth of the per capita GDP. We conclude the research with a hotspot analysis of the spatial distribution of the MS, identifying the MS clusters.	Spatially explicit material stock analysis of buildings in Eastern China ...	Jing Guo, Alessio Miatto, Feng Shi, Hiroki Tanikawa	Journal Article	academic	2019	Case Study Construction Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban
In-use Product and Steel Stocks Sustaining the Urbanization of Xiamen, China In-use product and material stocks are now an essential component of cities and urban ecosystem. They refer to the amount of concerned manufactured products and materials in active use. This study estimates the dynamic in-use stocks of various steel-containing products and steel in the city of Xiamen, China, during 1980-2015 by applying a bottom-up accounting approach. We incorporate 55 categories of steel-containing products that are classified into five main end-use sectors (i.e., buildings, infrastructure, transportation equipment, machinery, and domestic appliances). We find that in-use stocks of more than half of the studied products kept increasing during the period 1980-2015, especially after 2000. Steel stocks in Xiamen have grown up to 4.9 ± 1.4 tons per capita (t/cap) in 2015, from 0.5 ± 0.2 t/cap in 1980. Buildings are the largest reservoirs during the studied period, although its share decreased from 89% in 1980 to 68% in 2015. The dynamic spatial distribution indicates that in-use steel stocks gradually expanded from urban core to the suburban areas during the studied period. Results of this study help to explore how a city’s urbanization is sustained by the growth of in-use product and steel stocks in China that has been quickly urbanized. In-use steel stocks, of which the growth is highly correlated to and probably driven by the population growth, GDP increase, and urban built-up area expansion in Xiamen, may serve as a supplementary indicator for urbanization.	In-use Product and Steel Stocks Sustaining the Urbanization of Xiamen, ...	Lulu Song, Chao Zhang, Ji Han & Wei-Qiang Chen	Journal Article	academic	2019	Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series Urban
Dynamic assessment of construction materials in urban building stocks – A critical review There is a lack of understanding on the different types of dynamics of building stocks, in real life and in models. Moreover, there is now a particular interest in the embodied impacts of construction materials, since with the increasing efficiency of buildings operation, embodied impacts gain more importance in the overall building life cycle. This critical review wants to advance the understanding on the type of dynamics, methods and tools used. The well-known IPAT equation is adapted for building stocks and three dynamics are defined: spatial, evolutionary temporal and spatial-cohort dynamic. A framework is defined that can help researchers choose a method, tool and dynamics of input parameters depending on their research goal, case study and data. Moreover, generally valid conclusions are drawn, including: MFA is useful to model spatially dynamic material flows; GIS is needed to include spatial dynamics. Retrofit, compared to construction and demolition, is understudied and usually analyzed through top-down methods. Material Intensity and Emission Intensity are rarely modeled in a dynamic way. Overall, scholars seem to perform each time more data intensive and complex studies tailored to a specific case study. However, there are big differences in the quality depending on the dynamic of input parameters.	Dynamic assessment of construction materials in urban building stocks – ...	Verena Göswein, José Dinis Silvestre, Guillaume Habert,Fausto Freire	Journal Article	academic	2019	Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban Zotero import
The expansion of the built environment, waste generation and EU recycling targets on Samothraki, Greece: An island’s dilemma Connectivity and affluence provide communities on small islands with opportunities and challenges. Both factors drive the expansion of material stocks which in turn determines future waste generation. For islands with limited waste treatment options an effective waste management strategy is inevitable. For the Greek island of Samothraki, construction and demolition waste (CDW) represents a new phenomenon. The advent of tourism, EU funding, labor migration and the construction of a new port in the 1960s led to an expansion of the built environment unprecedented on the island. As a consequence, new types and expanding quantities of CDW put the island community increasingly in the need for action. The European Waste Framework Directive, reinforced in 2018 with the Circular Economy Package, demands from EU member states at least 70% recycling and recovery rate of CDW until 2020. In this study, a mixed methods approach enabled the integration of data from official statistics, field surveys and interviews into a dynamic stock-driven model for different infrastructure and buildings types on Samothraki from 1971 to 2016. Our results show that the material stock expanded from 175 t/cap to 350 t/cap in the given period, leading to a 15-fold increase of annual CDW generation. With a recycling rate of only 14%, the island is currently far away from meeting the recycling and recovery targets of the EU-WFD. This study provides a systematic and dynamic analysis for developing policy and management options on reducing, re-using and recycling of CDW on islands where waste treatment options are limited.	The expansion of the built environment, waste generation and EU ...	Noll, Dominik; Wiedenhofer, Dominik; Miatto, Alessio; Singh, Simron Jit	Journal Article	academic	2019	Circular Economy Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Sub-national Time series
Spatial analysis of urban material stock with clustering algorithms: A Northern European case study A large share of construction material stock (MS) accumulates in urban built environments. To attain a more sustainable use of resources, knowledge about the spatial distribution of urban MS is needed. In this article, an innovative spatial analysis approach to urban MS is proposed. Within this scope, MS indicators are defined at neighborhood level and clustered with k-mean algorithms. The MS is estimated bottom-up with (a) material-intensity coefficients and (b) spatial data for three built environment components: buildings, road transportation, and pipes, using seven material categories. The city of Gothenburg, Sweden is used as a case study. Moreover, being the first case study in Northern Europe, the results are explored through various aspects (material composition, age distribution, material density), and, finally, contrasted on a per capita basis with other studies worldwide. The stock is estimated at circa 84 million metric tons. Buildings account for 73% of the stock, road transport 26%, and pipes 1%. Mineral-binding materials take the largest share of the stock, followed by aggregates, brick, asphalt, steel, and wood. Per capita, the MS is estimated at 153 metric tons; 62 metric tons are residential, which, in an international context, is a medium estimate. Denser neighborhoods with a mix of nonresidential and residential buildings have a lower proportion of MS in roads and pipes than low-density single-family residential neighborhoods. Furthermore, single-family residential neighborhoods cluster in mixed-age classes and show the largest content of wood. Multifamily buildings cluster in three distinct age classes, and each represent a specific material composition of brick, mineral binding, and steel. Future work should focus on megacities and contrasting multiple urban areas and, methodologically, should concentrate on algorithms, MS indicators, and spatial divisions of urban stock. None	Spatial analysis of urban material stock with clustering algorithms: A ...	Gontia, Paul; Thuvander, Liane; Ebrahimi, Babak; Vinas, Victor; Rosado, Leonardo; Wallbaum, Holger	Journal Article	academic	2019	Case Study Construction Materials Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban
Uncovering the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Urban Infrastructure Development: A High Spatial Resolution Material Stock and Flow Analysis Understanding the complexity and sustainability of infrastructure development is crucial for reconciling economic growth, human wellbeing, and environmental conservation. However, previous studies on infrastructure’s material metabolism were mainly conducted on a global or national scale, due largely to lack of more spatially refined data, and thus could not reveal the spatial patterns and dynamics on a city scale. Here, we integrated material flow analysis (MFA) and geographical information system (GIS) for uncovering the spatiotemporal patterns of the material stocks and flows accompanying the infrastructure development at a high spatial resolution for a case of Shanghai, China. From 1980 to 2010, material stocks and waste output flows of Shanghai’s infrastructure system exhibited a significant increase from 83 million metric tons (Mt) to 561 Mt and from 2 Mt to 17 Mt, respectively. Input flows peaked in 2005 due to the economic slowdown and stepped-up policies to cool down the housing market. Spatially, the center and peri-urban areas were the largest container of material stocks and biggest generator of demolition waste, while suburban areas absorbed 58% to 76% of material inputs. Plans to make the city more compact will enhance the service capacity of stocks but may also increase the use of more energy and emissions intensive construction materials (e.g., steel). Prolonging the service lifetime of infrastructure through proper management and increasing the recycling and reuse rate of demolition waste are also identified as highly efficient strategies.	Uncovering the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Urban Infrastructure Development: A High ...	Ji Han, Weiqiang Chen, Lixiao Zhang, Gang Liu	Journal Article	academic	2018	Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series Urban
The Weight of Islands: A GIS based Material Stock Analysis of Grenada in the Context of Extreme Weather and Climate Change The building stock consumes large amounts of resources for maintenance and expansion, which is only exacerbated by disaster events where large-scale reconstruction must occur quickly. Recent research has shown the potential for application of material stock (MS) accounts for informing disaster risk planning. This research presents a methodological approach to analyze the vulnerability of the material stock in buildings to extreme weather events and sea-level rise (SLR) due to climate change. The main island of the Grenada, a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) in the Caribbean region, was used as a case study. A stock-driven approach based on a geographic information system (GIS) is used to calculate total MS of aggregate, timber, concrete and steel in buildings. The total MS in buildings in 2014 is calculated to be 11.9 Mt. equalling 112 tonnes per capita given that year’s population. Material Gross Addition to Stock (GAS) between 1993 to 2009 was 6.8 Mt and the average value over this time period is 4.0 tonnes/capita/year. In the year following Hurricane Ivan (2004) the per capita GAS for timber increased by 172%, while for other metals, GAS spiked by 103% (compared to average growth rates of 11% and 8%, respectively, between 1993 and 2009). A future hurricane “Ivan-II” scenario to hit the 2014 building stock was also developed and estimated a hypothetical loss between 135 kt and 216 kt of timber stock. The potential impact of sea level rise (SLR) is also assessed, with an estimated 1.6 Mt of building material stock exposed under a 2-meter scenario. Further, I argue that spatial material stock accounts have an important application in planning for resilience and provide indication of the link between natural disaster recovery and resource use patterns.	The Weight of Islands: A GIS based Material Stock Analysis ...	Robert Symmes	Thesis	theses	2018	Geographic Information System (GIS) Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series
Towards a more circular construction sector: Estimating and spatialising current and future non-structural material replacement flows to maintain urban building stocks Humans are extracting and consuming unprecedented quantities of materials from the earth's crust. The construction sector and the built environment are major drivers of this consumption which is concentrated in cities. This paper proposes a framework to quantify, spatialise and estimate future material replacement flows to maintain urban building stocks. It uses a dynamic, stock-driven, and bottom-up model applied to the City of Melbourne, Australia to evaluate the status of its current material stock as well as estimated replacements of non-structural materials from 2018 to 2030. The model offers a high level of detail and characterises individual materials within construction assemblies for each of the 13 075 buildings modelled. Results show that plasterboard (7 175 t), carpet (7 116 t), timber (6 097 t) and ceramics (3 500 t) have the highest average annual replacement rate over the studied time period. Overall, replacing non-structural materials resulted in a significant flow of 26 kt/annum, 36 kg/(capita·annum) or 721 t/(km²·annum). These figures were found to be compatible with official waste statistics. Results include maps depicting which material quantities are estimated to be replaced in each building, as well as an age pyramid of materials, representing the accumulation of materials in the stock, according to their service lives. The proposed model can inform decision-making for a more circular construction sector.	Towards a more circular construction sector: Estimating and spatialising current ...	André Stephan and Aristide Athanassiadis	Journal Article	academic	2018	Aluminum Australia City Concrete Construction Materials Glass Infra-urban Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Melbourne Minerals Plastics Research and Analysis Wood
Estimating the Material Stock of Roads: The Vietnamese Case Study This study is a pioneering effort to quantify the materials stocked in the road network of a developing country, Vietnam, and analyze its relationships to the country's recent economic development. National road networks function as capital and infrastructure investments that are necessary catalysts for countries’ development, while requiring the extraction of vast amounts of construction materials for expansion and maintenance causing environmental impacts. However, there has so far been little research on the subject, especially in developing countries. We compile material stock and flow accounts for Vietnam's roads from 2003 to 2013 on the national and provincial levels, finding that approximately 40% of the domestic consumption of construction materials is for expanding and maintaining the road network, and the materials stocked in the road network doubled from 1,321 million metric tons in 2003 to 2,660 million metric tons in 2012. Material stock growth rates closely resembled those of gross domestic product (GDP) in this period, suggesting a codependency of physical infrastructure development and economic development. On the provincial level, our results show local disparities in the stock and its capacity to support the transportation of passengers and freight, especially considering the surging growth of vehicles in urban centers. By showcasing the challenges of conducting a material flow and stock analysis in a developing country, this study not only sheds light on Vietnam's transportation material stock and its policy implications, but also serves as a case study for further work in similar countries.	Estimating the Material Stock of Roads: The Vietnamese Case Study	Thi Cuc Nguyen, Tomer Fishman, Alessio Miatto, Hiroki Tanikawa	Journal Article	academic	2018	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series
Embodied GHGs in a Fast Growing City: Looking at the Evolution of a Dwelling Stock using Structural Element Breakdown and Policy Scenarios: Embodied GHGs in a Fast Growing City Africa is currently experiencing rapid population growth and accelerated urbanization. This demographic shift will require a large amount of new construction material resulting in substantial environmental impact. For many cities on the continent, data gaps make specific quantification and robust prediction of this impact highly difficult. This article presents a method to assess the stock dynamics and embodied emissions of a rapidly growing urban built environment using a bottom-up, typological approach. This approach allows for the identification of appropriate engineering solutions for decarbonization by localizing embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the different constructive elements with a revisited Sankey diagram. Different alternatives regarding housing type and construction techniques are compared. The city of Johannesburg is used as a case study to illustrate the relation between building types, technologies, and embodied GHG of its residential building stock. This new visualization uncovers the most material- and GHG-intense dwelling types and building elements. The adapted Sankey represents the building stock and its drivers in a simple way, allowing clear understanding of the consequences of potential alternatives. The business-as-usual scenario indicates 100.5 megatons carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2-eq) for new construction between 2011 and 2040. The results of the dynamic model over time show that only a combination of a densified building stock with multistory buildings and the use of alternative construction materials and techniques show real potential to decelerate GHG emissions (33.0 Mt CO2-eq until 2040) while aiming to provide adequate and sustainable housing for all.	Embodied GHGs in a Fast Growing City: Looking at the ...	Verena Göswein, Jonathan Krones, Giulia Celentano, John E. Fernández, Guillaume Habert	Journal Article	academic	2017	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series Urban
Quantifying and mapping embodied environmental requirements of urban building stocks Cities and their building stocks result in huge environmental impacts which are critical to reduce. However, the majority of existing studies focus on operational requirements or on material stocks. To date, very few studies have quantified embodied environmental requirements of building stocks and spatialised them. This study describes a bottom-up approach to spatially model building stocks and quantify their embodied environmental requirements. It uses a highly disaggregated approach where each building's geometry is modelled and used to derive a bill of quantities. Construction assemblies relevant to each building archetype (derived based on land-use, age and height) are defined using expert knowledge in construction. The initial and recurrent embodied energy, water and greenhouse gas emissions associated with each material within each assembly are calculated using a comprehensive hybrid analysis technique. This model is applied to all buildings of the City of Melbourne, Australia. Results show that rebuilding the City of Melbourne's building stock today would require 904 kt of materials/km2 (total: 32 725 kt), 10 PJ/km2 (total: 362 PJ), 17.7 Million m3 of embodied water/km2 (total: 640.74 Million m3) and would emit 605 ktCO2e/km2 (total: 23 530 ktCO2e). This study demonstrates the breadth of the model outputs, including material stocks maps and breakdowns of life cycle embodied requirements by material, construction assembly, building and building typology at the city level. Using such model, city councils can better manage building stocks in terms of waste processing, urban mining and circular economy, as well as reducing embodied environmental requirements over time.	Quantifying and mapping embodied environmental requirements of urban building stocks	Stephan, André and Athanassiadis, Aristide	Journal Article	academic	2017	Australia Case Study Construction Materials Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Melbourne Single point in time Urban
Urbanisation processes as key for analysing construction materials flows and stocks: Paris Region case study Urbanisation processes generate various urban structures (Steadman, 1994) which have a significant effect on urban metabolism, as shown for instance for residential heat-energy demand by Rode and colleagues (2014). Those processes have yet received little attention in studies on construction materials flows and stocks. Indeed, analysis is often based on criteria such as population size or gross domestic product and forecasting on the assumption of homogeneity across national or regional areas (Augiseau and Barles, 2017). Whereas some studies assume different urban structures to forecast inflows (Schiller, 2007), future outflows are generally estimated through average lifetimes or survival functions which do not consider urbanisation processes. Yet statistics show that buildings demolition strongly differs within a country, between rural or urban areas, as well as between urban areas according to their development dynamics (Huuhka and Lahdensivu, 2016). Miatto and colleagues (2017) also show that the survival functions generally used in dynamic materials flows analysis are not adapted to cities like Salford (Greater Manchester, UK) where a significant urban renewal occurred. Considering urbanisation processes would improve forecasting by adapting the parameters used in dynamic models. This would also bring a better understanding of past and present flows dynamics in terms of total mass and distribution between built works, and especially between buildings and networks. Indeed, while debris from building demolition are mainly recycled in road construction in countries like Japan, road networks development declines and may lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand of recycled crushed stone (Hashimoto et al., 2007). Anticipating such changes is important to implement appropriate recycling and dematerialisation policies. Moreover, taking into account urbanisation processes enables a better comparison of flows and stocks in different areas.	Urbanisation processes as key for analysing construction materials flows and ...	Vincent Augiseau, Sabine Barles	Conference Paper	None	2017	Construction Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Sub-national Urban
Estimating the Potential for Urban Mining in Paris Region Construction materials are the largest flows entering urban areas after water, while they constitute the top waste deposit (Matthews et al., 2000). The consumption of these mostly non-renewable materials generates environmental impacts and land-use conflicts, from extraction to end-life management and especially storage. Moreover, urbanisation strongly constrains local mineral resources extraction, which leads to the extension of the supplying areas. Materials contained in a city today, in the form of buildings and networks, could potentially be recycled tomorrow through urban mining and so partly substitute for primary resources in highly urbanised countries (Brunner, 2011). The joint analysis of flows and stock of construction materials is therefore an important issue in terms of understanding and managing the metabolism of socioeconomic systems. This is bound up with significant methodological challenges concerning the knowledge of flows and stock of existing materials, in terms of quantity and location, along with short-term forecasting which is essential to anticipating and acting on metabolism. A three years research project launched in 2014 by Géographie-Cités laboratory aims at helping regional authorities to set urban mining objectives until 2030. It is financed by the regional council (Région Ile-de-France) which is in charge of the C&D waste management plan, and the regional office for environment (DRIEE) responsible of the quarries regulation plan. First, construction materials flows were studied through a top-down material flow analysis for Paris Region and its administrative divisions (départements) in 2001 and 2013. The Eurostat top-down MFA method adapted to urban and regional scales by Barles (2009) was used. Then the stock contained in buildings and networks was studied in terms of quantity and location for the entire region through a bottom-up assessment. For buildings, a 3D geographical database called BD Topo® was matched with local tax records which contain information on construction years, economic activities and materials in wall structures. Materials stocked in road, rail, electricity, gas, heat and water networks were estimated with BD Topo® and data from networks managers. Domestic material consumption (DMC) of Paris region reaches 2.5 t/inhab. in 2013. Annual net addition to stock amounts for 2.0 t/inhab. while total stock estimation is 226 t/inhab. While non metallic minerals form 95 % of the DMC, used domestic extraction of these materials decreases and only amounts for 85 % of non metallic minerals imports in 2013. Paris urban area (city and petite couronne) has the lowest DMC (1.8 t/inhab.) in the region, but also the most important local and exported processed outputs (0.8 t/inhab.). Regional development plan for 2030 (SDRIF) sets high annual construction objectives for Paris urban area that imply a strong increase of building renewal. Buildings form 79 % of material stock in this area with a building stock density that reaches 12,277 t/ha in 2013. Objectives of the development plan and statistics on demolition during the last decade are used to estimate future input and output flows until 2030 and hence the potential for urban mining.	Estimating the Potential for Urban Mining in Paris Region	Sabine Barles, Vincent Augiseau	Conference Paper	None	2017	Construction Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Single point in time Sub-national Time series Urban
Material flow analysis of the residential building stock at the city of Rio de Janeiro The extensive use of materials in building stocks contributes to the scarcity of natural resources and impacts from construction and demolition waste (CDW). Therefore, the concern with the efficient use of materials and CDW management made several countries conducted mapping, analysis and performance improvement in activities related to CDW using Material Flow Analysis (MFA). The city of Rio de Janeiro had a high urban development and building stock growth from the beginning of the last century, in which the amount of material consumed has not been documented. This study presents an MFA approach to assess the materials in-use and further flows of CDW from the residential building stock in the city of Rio de Janeiro. The material in-use was estimated from the extrapolation of the Material Intensities (MI) per different building types to the total constructed area in this city considering land occupation. The building types were modelled from the designs of typical buildings in Brazil. An analysis of urban development supported the estimation of buildings age and their remaining lifetime while national standards supported the time of replacement of building elements during the use phase. Results show that the stock in 2010 had about 78,828,770t of building material with MI between 2.58 and 0.74 t/m2; concrete and aggregates have the higher MI. The Use phase of the buildings will move about 9,807,690t of materials until 2090. These findings support further environmental impacts assessments and decision-making for planning CDW management and strategies for the efficient use of materials.	Material flow analysis of the residential building stock at the ...	Condeixa, Karina and Haddad, Assed and Boer, Dieter	Journal Article	academic	2017	Brazil Case Study Construction Materials Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Rio de Janeiro Single point in time Urban Zotero2
Comparing the material stock of seven cities During the last century, global population increased by a factor of 4 while the global extraction of construction minerals rose by a factor of 34 (Krausmann et al., 2009). This considerable intensification in construction materials use illustrates an urbanisation of the global population leading to the creation and expansion of cities. Today, more than 50% of global population lives in urban areas and this share is likely to increase to 70 % by 2050 (United Nations-Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014). More specifically, 90 % of the people to be added to the world's urban population by 2050 (around 2.5 billion people), are expected to be concentrated in Asia and Africa where new cities will appear. As such, it is safe to expect that if current trends of urban material use are maintained, the future use of construction materials will follow a similar steep curve. Nevertheless, current levels of material use are unsustainable as they alter a number of ecosystems, put a significant pressure to their local and global environment, and lead to resource depletion. In anticipation of the future needs of construction materials for the creation and expansion of cities, it becomes necessary to better understand of what their material stock consists of. In fact, urban material stock analysis enables to inform about past, present and potentially future needs for construction materials (but also of construction and demolition waste). To gain insights about the quantity and the composition of materials present in urban material stock, this study proposed to briefly analyse and compare seven urban areas, namely Brussels, Melbourne, Paris, Vienna, Beijing, Geneva and Orleans. The methodology used, the materials as well as the built environment components considered will be discussed (Beijing, Geneva and Orléans' building stocks were not calculated by the authors but originate from (Emmenegger et al., 2003; Rouvreau et al., 2012; Serrand et al., 2013; Hu et al., 2010). Furthermore, this research will investigate the link between the quantity of materials with some urban and built environment characteristics such as population, density, number of buildings, average height, average dwelling area, etc. Finally, the results from this research will provide preliminary figures about average material requirements per capita in order to very roughly estimate future needs of construction materials. As a conclusion, this comparative research wishes to explore the urgent issue of construction materials use and waste generation through the lens of urban material stocks.	Comparing the material stock of seven cities	Aristide Athanassiadis, Vincent Augiseau, Fritz Kleemann, André Stephan, Sabine Barles	Conference Paper	None	2017	Construction Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban
Using Material and Energy Flow Analysis to Estimate Future Energy Demand at the City Level Cities undergoing rapid growth encounter tremendous challenges, not only in terms of providing services to meet demand, but also in ensuring that development occurs in a sustainable way. This research evaluates the potential contribution of the material and energy flow analysis framework to predicting future energy flows and corresponding CO2 emissions in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The research presents a generic material and energy flow analysis model and applies it to the housing stock in Riyadh to estimate future energy demand and to assess associated effects. As the country starts to adopt sustainability measures and plan its transition from a fossil fuel-based energy system towards a renewable-based energy system, an understanding of future energy flows will allow early recognition of potential environmental impacts and provide information to enable accurate predictions of future demand for resources.	Using Material and Energy Flow Analysis to Estimate Future Energy ...	Naif Albelwi and Alan Kwan and Yacine Rezgui	Journal Article	academic	2017	Carbon dioxide (CO2) Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Scenario analysis Time series Urban
Prospecting the Urban Mine of Amsterdam The buildings of Amsterdam contain tons of steel, copper, aluminum and lead. Amsterdam can be seen as an urban mine. In a circular economy, under conditions, the metals of Amsterdam can be mined. Leiden University will write scenarios of urban mining. TU Delft will develop methods to deduce metal content of buildings. The Waag Society will make a geological map of the built environment of Amsterdam. Metabolic will do a ground truth check. Finally, Leiden University will write a draft mining plan. Together, in the AMS project PUMA, we will find out under what conditions Amsterdam as urban mine is viable. Amsterdam is an urban mine. Amsterdam is a wealth of metals. Amsterdam is tons of steel, copper, aluminum, gold. Steel in high-rise buildings, copper in the cables, aluminum in window frames, gold in the telephones. Tons. If you need metals, go prospecting Amsterdam. Obviously, the metals are in use and not free to process yet. It will take time before you can get them out. But in the mining industry this is business as usual - getting any mine running takes decades. Traditionally, mines are underground. There is iron, copper and aluminum in the earth. Ore concentrations are going down, and it takes ever more energy to get the metals out. Worldwide, 7-8% of all energy consumption is now used to producing metals. It takes far less energy to take the metals from urban mines. Still, we have to ask: can it be done? Is it worthwhile? The first step in any mining process is prospecting: the first stage of the geological analysis by physical search for minerals and precious metals. To start, we need to make a geological map of the built environment. Where are the metals, how much, what is the quality, when will these metals become available? We teach the principles of this in a two-year master course, called industrial ecology, run in cooperation between Leiden University and the Technical University of Delft. We participate in a European project, MICA, a consortium involving the European geological bureaus, to develop the methodology of urban prospecting. This project, Prospecting the Urban Mines of Amsterdam (PUMA) will deliver two products. The first is a geological map of the built environment. The results will be shared as open data and visualized in an interactive geological map, giving an overview of available resources, their quality and ‘time to mine'. The second is an outline for an urban mining plan, indicating the steps needed to actually exploit the urban mine. We intend to take this idea further in other, larger projects, funded for example by the EU Horizon 2020 program or the KIC Raw Materials. The project is a joint research of TU Delft, Waag Society, CML Leiden University, and Metabolic.	Prospecting the Urban Mine of Amsterdam	Ester van der Voet, Ruben Huele, Alexander Koutamanis, Boukje van Reijn, Ellen van Bueren, Job Spiering,Tom Demeyer, Gerard Roemers, Merlijn Blok	Report	reports	2017	Amsterdam Case Study Copper Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Single point in time Steel The Netherlands Urban Zotero import Zotero2
Towards more comprehensive urban environmental assessments: exploring the complex relationship between urban and metabolic profiles Urban areas cover 2% of the Earth's land surface, host more than 50% of global population and are estimated to account for around 75% of CO2 emissions from global energy use. In order to mitigate existing and future direct and indirect environmental pressures resulting from urban resource use, it is necessary to investigate and better understand resource and pollution flows associated with urban systems. Current urban environmental assessment methodologies enable the quantification of resource use and pollution emissions flows entering, becoming stocked and exiting urban areas. While these methodologies enable to estimate the environmental effect of cities, they often consider urban areas as being static and homogeneous systems. This partial and simplistic representation shadows the complex spatio-temporal interrelationships between the local context and its associated local and global environmental pressures. This characterisation of urban systems is a significant limitation, not only for the urban environmental assessments, but also for the identification of their drivers as it may lead to inadequate urban environmental policies. To overcome this limitation and effectively reduce glocal urban environmental pressures, it is necessary to better understand the complex functioning of cities and identify their drivers. This research developed a comprehensive urban environmental assessment framework that helps to better explicit and understand the complex relationship between an urban system and its environmental profile in a systemic and systematic way. This framework was applied to the case study of Brussels Capital Region (BCR). Results from the application of this framework show that urban systems are neither static nor homogeneous. In fact, different relationships between the urban and metabolic profiles appear when considering different spatial scales and temporal intervals as well as different urban and metabolic metrics. The establishment of BCR's urban profile showed that components that shape the urban system evolve in an organic way over time. Moreover, the spatial expression of an urban system portrays its heterogeneous aspect and how different metrics of the same urban indicator can reveal distinct facets and challenges for an urban area or a neighbourhood. Finally, it was demonstrated that the relationship between urban indicators is different for each spatial scale and therefore knowledge from one spatial scale is not necessarily transferable from one scale to another. The establishment and analysis of BCR's metabolic profile also underlined the complex functioning of cities as each flow has a different temporal evolution and spatial expression. Due to the multifaceted and intertwined aspect of metabolic flows it becomes clear that no single parameter enables to explain or predict their behaviour. This leads to the conclusion that a great number of questions still need to be considered, understood and answered before effectively and coherently reducing environmental pressures from cities. The developed framework proposes a number of concrete steps that enable existing and new cities to better understand their metabolic functioning and ultimately transition towards less environmentally harmful futures.	Towards more comprehensive urban environmental assessments: exploring the complex relationship ...	Aristide Athanassiadis	Thesis	theses	2016	Belgium Biomass (must be merged with other Biomass) Brussels Carbon Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Circular Economy City Construction Materials Domestic extraction (DE) Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Electricity Emissions (must be merged with Emissions) Energy Food Global Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Imports and Exports Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Minerals Multi-scale NOx Natural Gas SO2 Single point in time Social Metabolism Time series Urban Waste Wastewater Water Zotero import
Stochastic Analysis and Forecasts of the Patterns of Speed, Acceleration, and Levels of Material Stock Accumulation in Society The recent acceleration of urbanization and industrialization of many parts of the developing world, most notably in Asia, has resulted in a fast-increasing demand for and accumulation of construction materials in society. Despite the importance of physical stocks in society, the empirical assessment of total material stock of buildings and infrastructure and reasons for its growth have been underexplored in the sustainability literature. We propose an innovative approach for explaining material stock dynamics in society and create a country typology for stock accumulation trajectories using the ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) methodology, a stochastic approach commonly used in business studies and economics to inspect and forecast time series. This enables us to create scenarios for future demand and accumulation of building materials in society, including uncertainty estimates. We find that the so-far overlooked aspect of acceleration trends of material stock accumulation holds the key to explaining material stock growth, and that despite tremendous variability in country characteristics, stock accumulation is limited to only four archetypal growth patterns. The ability of nations to change their pattern will be a determining factor for global sustainability.	Stochastic Analysis and Forecasts of the Patterns of Speed, Acceleration, ...	Tomer Fishman and Heinz Schandl and Hiroki Tanikawa	Journal Article	academic	2016	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Method National
Modeling of material and energy flows in the Metropolitan City of Milan, Italy using urban metabolism approaches A major challenge to urban sustainability research today is to understand the urban metabolic profile of cities and predict how cities with different socio-economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics interact with the natural environment in which they exist. Due to the increasing growth in cities and high dense concentrations it is necessary to understand the complexity of the urban socio-economic phenomena, different forms of resource consumption and energy intensities in cities. Data was collected from public and private databases; scales of data included local, regional, and national level. The study applied mathematical modeling and energy flow simulation model approaches: 1. convection-diffusion model [1]; 2. quantitative network model and 3. neural network model, to capture the metabolic flow profile of a system between cities in the Metropolitan City of Milan, Italy. The data analysis combined a set of statistical socio economic, material and energy flow data; and multi-parameter clustering analysis to demonstrate energy and demographic behavioral flow interconnections, similarities and differences of material and energy consumption flows within build clusters. Applied, Group Method of Data Handling approach to forecast material and energy consumption, economic growth and the relationship of the data to understand the territorial metabolism [2] of a city through networks, economies and infrastructure. AMMODIT and final EUMLS Workshop Mathematics for Life Sciences (http://www.math.uni-luebeck.de/EUMLS-AMMODIT2016/)	Modeling of material and energy flows in the Metropolitan City ...	Gabriela Fernandez, Igor Tereshchenko	Conference Paper	None	2016	EUROSTAT (must be removed) Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Energy Energy/Emergy Imports and Exports Italy Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Method Metropolitan Milan Policy Research and Analysis Urban Ecology
Mapping the anthropogenic stock in Germany: Metabolic evidence for a circular economy The world's industrialised nations have accumulated a wealth of assets in the form of buildings, infrastructure and other durable goods. These assets constitute a valuable reservoir of secondary raw materials. This 'anthropogenic material stock' should be understood as a future capital stock that must be systematically managed and exploited. Yet this capital stock has hitherto been largely ignored in discussions on resource efficiency, which instead have focused on inputs of primary raw materials. This is partly due to insufficient knowledge of the size and constitution of this material stock as well as its dynamics. Therefore, a project was set up by Germany's Federal Environment Agency to provide the missing information. Project results offer a comprehensive view of material stocks, inflows and outflows connected to durable goods. Thus we note an annual per capita growth in Germany's anthropogenic material stock of 10 t. In the last 50 years an estimated 42 billion tons of material has been added to the anthropogenic stock. Not all of this can be classified to primary groups of goods. Around 28 million tons of material has been consumed by buildings, infrastructure, building services as well as durable consumer goods. Of this figure, over 99% can be located in the built environment. This mass is approximately 79 times larger than the material mass currently consumed every year by these sectors. Annual outflow from the stock is around 0.8%. The annual rate of growth of the observed stock of goods is 0.5%. The various figures can be further broken down according to individual groups of goods and material groups. This knowledge provides the necessary foundation for the long-term monitoring of the anthropogenic stock and, moreover, is an important step in the evidence-based development of a model to incorporate and to improve closed-loop material flows as well as to support politics of securing supply of raw materials.	Mapping the anthropogenic stock in Germany: Metabolic evidence for a ...	Georg Schiller and Felix Müller and Regine Ortlepp	Journal Article	academic	2016	Circular Economy Germany Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National
Studying construction materials flows and stock: A review Thirty-one scientific publications on the joint study of construction materials flows and stock with a focus on non-metallic minerals are reviewed. These studies serve different purposes: forecasting and comparing future input and output flows, studying the influence of several parameters on future flows, estimating the present or future stock as well as its evolution, studying urban metabolism and analysing the interaction between flows and stock. They are carried out at national, regional or urban level and their time scale range from a century to a single year. Six main methodological approaches can be distinguished: static bottom-up or top-down flow analysis; bottom-up stock analysis; dynamic retrospective or prospective flow analysis using flow-driven or stock-driven models; and top-down prospective or retrospective stock analysis using a flow-driven model. Approaches are often combined, which is a way to accounting for uncertainty. They rely on assumptions such as homogeneity of material composition and lifetime within groups of built works, whereas quality and coverage of data used are very variable. Most of the case studied show that stock accumulation is still ongoing and that non-metallic mineral secondary resources would be insufficient to totally meet future demand. They also point out infrastructures as the major part of the stock. Reviewed studies contributed to the development of a methodological framework for the joint study of flows and stock, as well as a conceptual framework for analysing the metabolism of a socioeconomic system. Further research could develop these frameworks and support the implementation of industrial ecology policies.	Studying construction materials flows and stock: A review	Vincent Augiseau and Sabine Barles	Journal Article	academic	2016	Construction Materials Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Minerals Review Paper Zotero import
GIS‐based Analysis of Vienna's Material Stock in Buildings The building stock is not only a huge consumer of resources (for its construction and operation), but also represents a significant source for the future supply of metallic and mineral resources. This article describes how material stocks in buildings and their spatial distribution can be analyzed on a city level. In particular, the building structure (buildings differentiated by construction period and utilization) of Vienna is analyzed by joining available geographical information systems (GIS) data from various municipal authorities. Specific material intensities for different building categories (differentiated by construction period and utilization) are generated based on multiple data sources on the material composition of different building types and combined with the data on the building structure. Utilizing these methods, the overall material stock in buildings in Vienna was calculated to be 380 million metric tonnes (t), which equals 210 t per capita (t/cap). The bulk of the material (>96%) is mineral, whereas organic materials (wood, plastics, bitumen, and so on) and metals (iron/steel, copper, aluminum, and so on) constitute a very small share, of which wood (4.0 t/cap) and steel (3.2 t/cap) are the major contributors. Besides the overall material stock, the spatial distribution of materials within the municipal area can be assessed. This research forms the basis for a resource cadaster, which provides information about gross volume, construction period, utilization, and material composition for each building in Vienna.	GIS‐based Analysis of Vienna's Material Stock in Buildings	Kleemann, Fritz and Lederer, Jakob and Rechberger, Helmut and Fellner, Johann	Journal Article	academic	2016	Concrete Construction Materials Geographic Information System (GIS) Glass Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Minerals Plastics Research and Analysis UM review paper import Urban Wood Zotero import hybrid
Toward Social Material Flow Analysis: On the Usefulness of Boundary Objects in Urban Mining Research Material flow analysis (MFA) has been an effective tool to identify the scale of physical activity, the allocation of materials across economic sectors for different purposes, and to identify inefficiencies in production systems or in urban contexts. However, MFA relies on ignoring the social drivers of those flows to be able to perform its calculations. In many cases therefore, it remains detached from the processes (e.g., urban) that underpin them. This becomes a problem when the purpose of research is to inform the design of detailed recycling schemes, for which micro-level practice knowledge on how material flows are mediated by human agency is needed. The aim of this article is to demonstrate how a particular social science approach, namely, infrastructure studies (IS), can be combined with MFA to enhance the latter's potential as a decision support tool. To achieve a successful combination between IS and MFA, the object of inquiry must be carefully defined to function as a ‘boundary object,' which allows academic approaches to work together without the need for consensus. This approach is illustrated with a case study example in urban mining research that assesses the hibernating stock of subsurface urban infrastructure in Norrköping, Sweden. It provides an example of how a well-calibrated MFA and a complementary social science approach can provide hands-on advice for private as well as public actors in a local and place-specific context. The article aims to advance the integration of social science and the study of the physical economy to contribute to the emerging field of social industrial ecology.	Toward Social Material Flow Analysis: On the Usefulness of Boundary ...	Wallsten, Björn	Journal Article	academic	2015	Aluminum Case Study Copper Infrastructure studies (IS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Single point in time Steel UM review paper import Urban
The ferrous find: Counting iron and steel stocks in China's economy A detailed understanding of material stocks in use is essential for anticipating future scrap availability, identifying critical drivers for material use, and developing strategies for resource efficiency. Here, we present a bottom-up assessment of iron and steel stocks in use in urban and rural China for the years 2000 and 2010, including >250 subcategories of products and components, and grouping them into five main end-use categories (i.e., buildings, infrastructure, domestic appliances, machinery, and transport equipment). The uncertainty range of the steel content per type of stock, a determinant of the accuracy and usefulness of the stock accounting, is probed by multiple means, including sample analysis. Important findings are that (1) iron and steel stocks in China have climbed to 2.4 tonnes/capita (t/cap) in 2010, up from 0.9 t/cap in 2000. The use of reinforced concrete in construction of the urban built environment was the major driver for stock growth; (2) a rural-urban difference was uncovered, with rural iron and steel stocks of approximately 1.1 t/cap and the urban iron and steel stocks of approximately 3.7 t/cap in 2010. Both are, nevertheless, far below the level of 10 to 16 t/cap observed in highly industrialized and urbanized countries. For this reason, further stock increase is foreseeable as urbanization and industrialization proceeds and quality of life improves; (3) nearly half of the steel stocks were embedded in concrete structures, and 23% were located in the countryside. Only a fraction of these stocks are currently recovered at end of life	The ferrous find: Counting iron and steel stocks in China's ...	Wang, Tao, and Müller, Daniel B., and Hashimoto, Senji	Journal Article	academic	2015	China Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Rural Single point in time Uncertainty Urban
The socio-economic drivers of material stock accumulation in Japan's prefectures Physical economy research has, thus far, focused on the throughput of materials that underpin economic development. The role of stocks of buildings and infrastructure has remained underexplored, yet it is the physical stock that provides service to society. To fill this gap, this research investigates stock dynamics in Japan in relation to population and economic drivers using panel regression and IPAT analyses for the past five decades. We recognize characteristic changes in the strength and relative influence of the drivers throughout time, in different subnational regions, and on the dynamics of buildings compared to transportation infrastructure. We find that material stock accumulation mainly occurred due to growth in economic activity, specifically by tertiary sector demand. Apart from a period of government-driven stock accumulation in the 1990s to stimulate economic growth, as economic and population growth slowed stock accumulation dynamics also changed signaling a new stock saturation trend. Migration from rural to urban areas has recently become an influential driver, leaving behind underused buildings and roads. This analysis provides a case study on how socio-economic drivers and stock accumulation interacted and changed while the country matured, which may have implications for understanding stock dynamics in rapidly industrializing economies.	The socio-economic drivers of material stock accumulation in Japan's prefectures	Fishman, Tomer and Schandl, Heinz and Tanikawa, Hiroki	Journal Article	academic	2015	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series
In-use product stocks link manufactured capital to natural capital In-use stock of a product is the amount of the product in active use. In-use product stocks provide various functions or services on which we rely in our daily work and lives, and the concept of in-use product stock for industrial ecologists is similar to the concept of net manufactured capital stock for economists. This study estimates historical physical in-use stocks of 91 products and 9 product groups and uses monetary data on net capital stocks of 56 products to either approximate or compare with in-use stocks of the corresponding products in the United States. Findings include the following: (i) The development of new products and the buildup of their in-use stocks result in the increase in variety of in-use product stocks and of manufactured capital; (ii) substitution among products providing similar or identical functions reflects the improvement in quality of in-use product stocks and of manufactured capital; and (iii) the historical evolution of stocks of the 156 products or product groups in absolute, per capita, or per-household terms shows that stocks of most products have reached or are approaching an upper limit. Because the buildup, renewal, renovation, maintenance, and operation of in-use product stocks drive the anthropogenic cycles of materials that are used to produce products and that originate from natural capital, the determination of in-use product stocks together with modeling of anthropogenic material cycles provides an analytic perspective on the material linkage between manufactured capital and natural capital.	In-use product stocks link manufactured capital to natural capital	Wei-Qiang Chen and T.E. Graedal	Journal Article	academic	2015	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series United States Various Materials
The weight of society over time and space: a comprehensive account of the construction material stock of Japan, 1945-2010 In order to fully comprehend the socioeconomic metabolic (SEM) dynamics and material balance of nations, long-term accounting of economy-wide material stock is necessary in parallel to material flow accounts. Nevertheless, material stock accounts have been scarce, isolated, and mostly focused either on single materials, short time spans, or small regions. This study has two objectives: (1) review the state of the art of material stock research in the SEM discourse and (2) present a project to map, in a high level of detail, the in-use construction material stocks of Japan and its 47 prefectures from the 1940s until the present era. This project documents the two major depositories of material stock: buildings and infrastructure. We describe the challenges and benefits of utilizing a bottom-up approach, in order to promote its usage in material stock studies. The resulting database presents the accumulation of stock over time, as well as visually displaying the spatial distribution of the stock using geographical information systems (GIS), which, we argue, is an essential aspect of material stock analysis in the context of socioeconomic metabolism research.	The weight of society over time and space: a comprehensive ...	Tanikawa, Hiroki and Fishman, Tomer and Okuoka, Keijiro and Sugimoto, Kenji	Journal Article	academic	2015	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series
An integrated material metabolism model for stocks of urban road system in Beijing, China Rapid urbanization has greatly altered the urban metabolism of material and energy. As a significant part of the infrastructure, urban roads are being rapidly developed worldwide. Quantitative analysis of metabolic processes on urban road systems, especially the scale, composition and spatial distribution of their stocks, could help to assess the resource appropriation and potential environmental impacts, as well as improve urban metabolism models. In this paper, an integrated model, which covered all types of roads, intersection structures and ancillary facilities, was built for calculating the material stocks of urban road systems. Based on a bottom-up method, the total stocks were disassembled into a number of stock parts rather than obtained by input-output data, which provided an approach promoting data availability and inner structure understanding. The combination with GIS enabled the model to tackle the complex structures of road networks and avoid double counting. In the case study of Beijing, the following results are shown: 1) The total stocks for the entire road system reached 159 million tons, of which nearly 80% was stored in roads, and 20% in ancillary facilities. 2) Macadam was the largest stock (111 million tons), while stone mastic asphalt, polyurethane plastics, and atactic polypropylene accounted for smaller components of the overall system. 3) The stock per unit area of pedestrian overcrossing was higher than that of the other stock units in the entire system, and its steel stocks reached 0.49 t/m(2), which was 10 times as high as that in interchanges. 4) The high stock areas were mainly distributed in ring-shaped and radial expressways, as well as in major interchanges. 5) Expressways and arterials were excessively emphasized, while minor roads were relatively ignored. However, the variation of cross-sectional thickness in branches and neighborhood roads will have a significant impact on the scale of material stocks in the entire road system.	An integrated material metabolism model for stocks of urban road ...	Guo, Zhen; Hu, Dan; Zhang, Fuhua; Huang, Guolong; Xiao, Qiang	Journal Article	academic	2014	Beijing Case Study Geographic Information System (GIS) Macadam Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Method Plastics Single point in time Transportation Zotero2
Accounting for the Material Stock of Nations National material stock (MS) accounts have been a neglected field of analysis in industrial ecology, possibly because of the difficulty in establishing such accounts. In this research, we propose a novel method to model national MS based on historical material flow data. This enables us to avoid the laborious data work involved with bottom‐up accounts for stocks and to arrive at plausible levels of stock accumulation for nations. We apply the method for the United States and Japan to establish a proof of concept for two very different cases of industrial development. Looking at a period of 75 years (1930-2005), we find that per capita MS has been much higher in the United States for the entire period, but that Japan has experienced much higher growth rates throughout, in line with Japan's late industrial development. By 2005, however, both Japan and the United States arrive at a very similar level of national MS of 310 to 375 tonnes per capita, respectively. This research provides new insight into the relationship between MS and flows in national economies and enables us to extend the debate about material efficiency from a narrow perspective of throughput to a broader perspective of stocks.	Accounting for the Material Stock of Nations	Fishman, Tomer and Schandl, Heinz and Tanikawa, Hiroki and Walker, Paul and Krausmann, Fridolin	Journal Article	academic	2014	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National
Component- and alloy-specific modeling for evaluating aluminium recycling strategies for vehicles Previous studies indicated that the availability of mixes hredded aluminum scrap from end-of-life vehicles (ELV) is likely to surpass the capacity of secondary castings to absorb this type of scrap, which could lead to a scrap surplus unless suitable interventions can be identified and implemented. However, there is a lack of studies analyzing potential solutions to this problem, among others, because of a lack of component- and alloy-specific information in the models. In this study, we developed a dynamic model of aluminum in the global vehicle stock (distinguishing 5 car segments, 14 components, and 7 alloy groups). The forecasts made up to the year 2050 for the demand for vehicle components and alloy groups, for the scrap supply from discarded vehicles, and for the effects of different ELV management options. Furthermore, we used a source-sink diagram to identify alloys that could potentially serve as alternative sinks for the growing scrap supply. Dismantling the relevant components could remove up to two-thirds of the aluminum from the ELV stream. However, the use of these components for alloy-specific recycling is currently limited because of the complex composition of components (mixed material design and applied joining techniques), as well as provisions that practically prevent the production of safety-relevant cast parts from scrap. In addition, dismantling is more difficult for components that are currently penetrating rapidly. Therefore, advanced alloy sorting seems to be a crucial step that needs to be developed over the coming years to avoid a future scrap surplus and prevent negative energy use and emission consequences.	Component- and alloy-specific modeling for evaluating aluminium recycling strategies for ...	Modarsi, Roja, and Løvik, Amund N., and Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2014	Future Scenario Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals
GIS and Urban Mining Geographical information systems (GIS) are a kind of location intelligence technology that supports systematic collection, integration, analysis and sharing of spatial data. They provide an effective tool for characterising and visualising geographical distributions of recyclable resources or materials dispersed across urban environments in what may be described as 'urban mines'. As logistics can be a key barrier to recycling, GIS are critical for capturing and analysing location intelligence about the distribution and values of recyclable resources and associated collection systems to effectively empower and inform the policy makers and the broader community with comprehensive, accurate and accessible information. This paper reviews the functionality of modern GIS, discusses the potential role of GIS in urban mining studies, and describes how GIS can be used to measure, report, analyse and visualise the spatial or geographical characteristics of dispersed stocks of recyclable waste and their collection and recovery systems. Such information can then be used to model material flows and assess the social and environmental impacts of urban mining. Issues and challenges in the use of GIS for urban mining are also to be addressed.	GIS and Urban Mining	Zhu, Xuan	Journal Article	academic	2014	City Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metropolitan Various Materials Waste
Measuring urban ecosystem functions through ‘Technomass'—A novel indicator to assess urban metabolism Cities are complex systems of accumulated matter. The continuous process of matter accumulation in urban systems differs in intensity across the globe according to specific urban features, such as location and age of the urban tissue, and as a physical manifestation of metabolic lineaments, material accumulation should differ amongst cities. In this paper, a new indicator to measure this process of material accumulation is proposed, namely, the Technomass. Emulating ecology, which measures biomass in natural ecosystems, a sample of different urban tissues in a given city - Bogotá - was measured in terms of volume and rates of matter accumulation. Technomass is able to indicate overall asymptotic behaviour, specific spatial profiles and intensification of rates in time. In metabolic terms, the indicator looks into the black box, providing the possibility to link metabolic behaviours with urban form and attempting to fill the gap between urban planning, urban metabolism (UM) and Material Flow Analysis (MFA). This new indicator offers a broad scope of applications. Further possibilities and links to urban research and policy making are explored in the discussion section.	Measuring urban ecosystem functions through ‘Technomass'—A novel indicator to assess ...	Inostroza, Luis	Journal Article	academic	2014	Bogotá City Indicators - general Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Method Urban Ecology Zotero import
The role of in-use stocks in the social metabolism and in climate change mitigation Human well-being includes the use of physical services from buildings, infrastructure, and consumer products. These in-use stocks link the services enjoyed by humans to energy and material consumption. Climate change mitigation requires us to transform current in-use stocks to decouple energy and material throughput from service provision. Assessing the potential environmental benefits of emissions mitigation and other sustainable development strategies requires a solid understanding of in-use stocks and their dynamics. We identified the different roles of in-use stocks in the social metabolism and showed to what extent they are included in current impact assessment models. We extended state-of-the-art dynamic stock models by including direct and indirect energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. We applied the new modeling framework to three case studies in the major sectors transportation, buildings, and industry. We assessed the emissions reduction potential of the decoupling strategies energy efficiency, material efficiency, and moderate lifestyle changes. For the global steel industry and for residential buildings the emissions reduction potential of the above-mentioned strategies was so large that the benchmarks corresponding to the 2 °C climate target could be reached. Decoupling alone might be sufficient to reach the 2 °C benchmarks in some sectors. Considering decoupling next to supply side measures such as new energy technologies may make it easier to consider other objectives than emissions reduction. Decoupling may therefore revitalize the debate about sustainable development because it allows us to loosen the focus on climate change mitigation and put more weight on the economic, social, cultural, and other environmental aspects of sustainability.	The role of in-use stocks in the social metabolism and ...	Pauliuk, Stefan, and Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2014	Decoupling Dwellings Emissions (must be merged with Emissions) Energy Global Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Social Metabolism Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Transportation Waste
Exploring urban mines: Pipe length and material stocks in urban water and wastewater networks Networks for water and wastewater transport represent large capital assets and material stocks within cities. A better understanding of how their material content changes with population and size of the city may help to design networks with lower resource demand and lower construction and maintenance costs. We estimated the total length and mass for the wastewater networks of 25 cities in five different countries using a fractal network model that only requires the cities' size and population as input data. We found that most of the network mass is concentrated in the main trunk lines. The model results showed efficiency of scale: For a catchment area of constant size, both network length and mass per capita would decline if population grew. However, if the population of a city grew while the population density remained constant or decreased (urban sprawl), the per-capita network mass would increase.	Exploring urban mines: Pipe length and material stocks in urban ...	Pauliuk, Stefan, and Govindarajan, Venkatesh, and Bratterbø, Helge, and Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2014	City Geneva Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Oslo Policy Rio de Janeiro Sao Paulo Urban Wastewater Water
Estimates of Lost Material Stock of Buildings and Roads Due to the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami: Lost Material Stock Due to Earthquake and Tsunami This article describes research conducted for the Japanese government in the wake of the magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami that struck eastern Japan on March 11, 2011. In this study, material stock analysis (MSA) is used to examine the losses of building and infrastructure materials after this disaster. Estimates of the magnitude of material stock that has lost its social function as a result of a disaster can indicate the quantities required for reconstruction, help garner a better understanding of the volumes of waste flows generated by that disaster, and also help in the course of policy deliberations in the recovery of disaster‐stricken areas. Calculations of the lost building and road materials in the five prefectures most affected were undertaken. Analysis in this study is based on the use of geographical information systems (GIS) databases and statistics; it aims to (1) describe in spatial terms what construction materials were lost, (2) estimate the amount of infrastructure material needed to rehabilitate disaster areas, and (3) indicate the amount of lost material stock that should be taken into consideration during government policy deliberations. Our analysis concludes that the material stock losses of buildings and road infrastructure are 31.8 and 2.1 million tonnes, respectively. This research approach and the use of spatial MSA can be useful for urban planners and may also convey more appropriate information about disposal based on the work of municipalities in disaster‐afflicted areas.	Estimates of Lost Material Stock of Buildings and Roads Due ...	Tanikawa, H; Managi, S; Lwin, C. M.	Journal Article	academic	2014	Island Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National
An integrated material metabolism model for stocks of Urban road system in Beijing, China Rapid urbanization has greatly altered the urban metabolism of material and energy. As a significant part of the infrastructure, urban roads are being rapidly developed worldwide. Quantitative analysis of metabolic processes on urban road systems, especially the scale, composition and spatial distribution of their stocks, could help to assess the resource appropriation and potential environmental impacts, as well as improve urban metabolism models. In this paper, an integrated model, which covered all types of roads, intersection structures and ancillary facilities, was built for calculating the material stocks of urban road systems. Based on a bottom-up method, the total stocks were disassembled into a number of stock parts rather than obtained by input-output data, which provided an approach promoting data availability and inner structure understanding. The combination with GIS enabled the model to tackle the complex structures of road networks and avoid double counting. In the case study of Beijing, the following results are shown: 1) The total stocks for the entire road system reached 159 million tons, of which nearly 80% was stored in roads, and 20% in ancillary facilities. 2) Macadam was the largest stock (111million tons), while stone mastic asphalt, polyurethane plastics, and atactic polypropylene accounted for smaller components of the overall system. 3) The stock per unit area of pedestrian overcrossing was higher than that of the other stock units in the entire system, and its steel stocks reached 0.49t/m(2), which was 10 times as high as that in interchanges. 4) The high stock areas were mainly distributed in ring-shaped and radial expressways, as well as in major interchanges. 5) Expressways and arterials were excessively emphasized, while minor roads were relatively ignored. However, the variation of cross-sectional thickness in branches and neighborhood roads will have a significant impact on the scale of material stocks in the entire road system.	An integrated material metabolism model for stocks of Urban road ...	Zhen Guo, Dan Hu, Fuhua Zhang, Guolong Huang, Qiang Xiao	Journal Article	academic	2013	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban
Urban Mining potential in local power grids: Hibernating copper and aluminium in Linköping Power grids have a high content of metal, mainly copper and aluminium. When old cables reach their end-of-life, or in some way lose their intended purpose, they are usually left lying in their subsurface position. Material no longer used, but not yet discarded as waste, is in a state known as hibernation. Over time there is an accumulation of hibernating cables under ground that potentially could be recovered or 'mined'. The aim of this study is to examine the total hibernating metal content of an urban, subsurface power grid, how it is distributed and also what reasons for disconnection are the most common. The focus of the study is the power grid of Linköping. Using a GIS based variant of material flow analysis the hibernating metal stock is examined both in terms of size and spatial distribution. The results of the study show a significant amount of hibernating copper and aluminium; in total 240 tons of metal were identified. By comparing the results with previous studies both similar and differing patterns appear. The main differences lie in the distribution of the stock within the city which is affected by the characteristics of the cities. When examining the reasons for disconnection continuous repair and maintenance work seems to be the most common reason for disconnection of cables. Further studies on how the characteristics of a city affects the formation of hibernating metal stocks in the infrastructure are suggested.	Urban Mining potential in local power grids: Hibernating copper and ...	Andersson, Simon	Thesis	theses	2013	Aluminum Case Study City Copper Geographic Information System (GIS) Linköping Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Single point in time Zotero import Zotero2
The future of mobility and its critical raw materials Concerns for climate change and declining oil reserves lead to a shift of transportation systems in many industrial countries. However, alternative drive concepts contain to some extent critical raw materials. Since the availability of certain raw materials could be decisive for the success of emerging technologies, concerns are growing about the potential limitation of resources. This brought about a growing attention to the subjects of criticality and resource security of raw materials by science, policy and industry. Four of the resulting surveys are described in terms of their framing of criticality, their indicators for evaluating criticality, and their rankings of potentially critical raw materials. Critical raw materials are used in alternative drive concepts because of their specific properties. The focus of our work lies on batteries for electric vehicles with special attention to lithium-ion batteries being one of the most promising candidates for energy storage there. Lithium-ion batteries use as major cathode materials lithium, manganese and cobalt, all of which are potential critical. A material flow model of the global manganese cycle is developed. It could be identified that there is a lack of relevant data for processes and flows. The lack of data impedes a comprehensive view and therefore no final conclusions could be drawn, which advice the need for further research. Using manganese as an example, it could be illustrated how material flow analysis can contribute to compiling relevant preparatory work that can subsequently serve as a basis for a prospective support of a criticality evaluation and to inform stakeholders and policy makers about the effectiveness of various interventions to reduce the risk or the effects of supply chain disruptions.	The future of mobility and its critical raw materials	Ziemann, Saskia, and Grunwald, Armin, and Schebek, Liselotte, and Müller, Daniel B., and Weil, Marcel	Journal Article	academic	2013	Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Transportation
Urban Metabolism and the Energy Stored in Cities Using the city of Toronto as a case study, this article examines impacts of energy stocks and flexible demand in the urban metabolism on the resilience of the city, including discussion of directions for further study of the resiliency of the urban metabolism. An important element developed is the nominal residence time of the energy stocks. This value defines how long an energy stock lasts under typical patterns of energy use. The findings suggest that the residence times of many sources of energy overcome vulnerability when energy supply shocks last on the order of hours or a few days, but that the measure is limited to assessing only certain types of commonly used energy sources in aggregate terms. Discussion is included on the uncertainty of this measure and on the metabolic and resiliency implications of new technologies intended to reduce energy use and improve sustainability of cities and the use of the urban metabolism as a means of comparison. The methodology employed highlights how waste energy could be used to increase the resiliency of the city's water supply, but also how the study of the urban metabolism would benefit from a more disaggregate form in the study of sustainable and resilient cities.	Urban Metabolism and the Energy Stored in Cities	David N. Bristow, Christopher A. Kennedy	Journal Article	academic	2013	Case Study Energy Energy (sector) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Resilience assessment UM review paper import Urban
Steel all over the world: Estimating in-use stocks of iron for 200 countries Industrialization and urbanization in the developing world have boosted steel demand during the recent two decades. Reliable estimates on how much steel is required for high economic development are necessary to better understand the future challenges for employment, resource management, capacity planning, and climate change mitigation within the steel sector. During their use phase, steel-containing products provide service to people, and the size of the in-use stock of steel can serve as an indicator of the total service level. We apply dynamic material flow analysis to estimate in-use stocks of steel in about 200 countries and identify patterns of how stocks evolve over time. Three different models of the steel cycle are applied and a full uncertainty analysis is conducted to obtain reliable stock estimates for the period 1700-2008. Per capita in-use stocks in countries with a long industrial history, e.g., the U.S, the UK, or Germany, are between 11 and 16 tons, and stock accumulation is slowing down or has come to a halt. Stocks in countries that industrialized rather recently, such as South Korea or Portugal, are between 6 and 10 tons per capita and grow fast. In several countries, per capita in-use stocks of steel have saturated or are close to saturation. We identify the range of saturation to be 13 ± 2 tons for the total per capita stock, which includes 10 ± 2 tons for construction, 1.3 ± 0.5 tons for machinery, 1.5 ± 0.7 tons for transportation, and 0.6 ± 0.2 tons for appliances and containers. The time series for the stocks and the saturation levels can be used to estimate future steel production and scrap supply.	Steel all over the world: Estimating in-use stocks of iron ...	Pauliuk, Stefan, and Wang, Tao, and Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2013	Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Multi-scale National Time series Uncertainty
Metabolism of the Anthroposphere: Analysis, Evaluation, Design Over the last several thousand years of human life on Earth, agricultural settlements became urban cores, and these regional settlements became tightly connected through infrastructures transporting people, materials, and information. This global network of urban systems, including ecosystems, is the anthroposphere; the physical flows and stocks of matter and energy within it form its metabolism. This book offers an overview of the metabolism of the anthroposphere, with an emphasis on the design of metabolic systems. It takes a cultural historical perspective, supported with methodology from the natural sciences and engineering. The book will be of interest to scholars and practitioners in the fields of regional development, environmental protection, and material management. It will also be a resource for undergraduate and graduate students in industrial ecology, environmental engineering, and resource management. The authors describe the characteristics of material stocks and flows of human settlements in space and time; introduce the method of material flow analysis (MFA) for metabolic studies; analyze regional metabolism and the material systems generated by basic activities; and offer four case studies of optimal metabolic system design: phosphorus management, urban mining, waste management, and mobility. This second edition of an extremely influential book has been substantially revised and greatly expanded. Its new emphasis on design and resource utilization reflects recent debates and scholarship on sustainable development and climate change.	Metabolism of the Anthroposphere: Analysis, Evaluation, Design	Peter Baccini and Paul Brunner	Book	academic	2012	Case Study EUROSTAT (must be removed) Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Method Multi-scale Practical Guides and Handbooks Research and Analysis Urban Ecology Zotero2
Patterns of Iron Use in Societal Evolution A dynamic material flow model was used to analyze the patterns of iron stocks in use for six industrialized countries. The contemporary iron stock in the remaining countries was estimated assuming that they follow a similar pattern of iron stock per economic activity. Iron stocks have reached a plateau of about 8−12 tons per capita in the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, but not yet in Japan, Canada, and Australia. The global average iron stock was determined to be 2.7 tons per capita. An increase to a level of 10 tons over the next decades would deplete about the currently identified reserves. A subsequent saturation would open a long-term potential to dramatically shift resource use from primary to secondary sources. The observed saturation pattern implies that developing countries with rapidly growing stocks have a lower potential for recycling domestic scrap and hence for greenhouse gas emissions saving than industrialized countries, a fact that has not been addressed sufficiently in the climate change debate.	Patterns of Iron Use in Societal Evolution	Müller, Daniel B. and Wang, Tao and Duval, Benjamin	Journal Article	academic	2011	Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Research and Analysis
Global Rare Earth In-Use Stocks in NdFeB Permanent Magnets The rare earth elements are indispensible in modern technology, especially in the applications of permanent magnets. Very little quantitative information is available on rare earth elements used in permanent magnets, however. This study looks back to 1983, when neodymium‐iron‐boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets were first manufactured, and reaches to 2007, when the market of permanent magnets was well developed. We draw on the historical data on permanent magnets from China, Japan, the United States, and Europe to provide the first estimates of global in‐use stocks for four rare earth elements—praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy)—in NdFeB permanent magnets. In‐use stocks amount to 62.6 gigagrams (Gg) Nd, 15.7 Gg Pr, 15.7 Gg Dy, and 3.1 Gg Tb; these stocks, if efficiently recycled, could provide a valuable supplement to geological stocks as they are almost four times the 2007 annual extraction rate of the individual elements.	Global Rare Earth In-Use Stocks in NdFeB Permanent Magnets	Du, Xiaoyue and Graedel, T. E.	Journal Article	academic	2011	Case Study Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Time series
Urban mining: hibernating copper stocks in local power grids Large technical systems serving the everyday needs of people, such as water supply systems, power grids or communication networks, are rich in accumulated metals. Over time, parts of these systems have been taken out of use without the system infrastructure being removed from its original location. Such metal stocks in hibernation thus constitute potential resource reservoirs accessible for recovery. In this paper, obsolete stocks of copper situated in the local power grids of two Swedish cities are quantified. Emphasis is also on economic conditions for extracting such 'hibernating' cables. The results show that on a per customer basis, the two power grids contain similar amounts of copper, i.e. 0.04-0.05 tonnes per subscriber. However, the share of the copper stock that is in hibernation differs between the grids. In the larger grid of Gothenburg, almost 20% of the copper accumulated in the grid is no longer in use, while the obsolete share does not exceed 5% in the city of Linköping. For managers of local power grids, recovery of hibernating cables could be beneficial if integrated with other maintenance work on the grid. At the present price of copper, however, separate recovery of obsolete cables is not economically justified.	Urban mining: hibernating copper stocks in local power grids	Krook, Joakim; Carlsson, Annica; Eklund, Mats; Frändegård, Per; Svensson, Niclas	Journal Article	academic	2011	Case Study City Copper Gothenburg Linköping Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Single point in time Zotero import Zotero2
Dynamic Material Flow Analysis for Strategic Construction and Demolition Waste Management in Beijing Of all materials extracted from the earth's crust, the construction sector uses 50%, producing huge amounts of construction and demolition waste (CDW). In Beijing, presently 35 million metric tons per year (megatonnes/year [Mt/yr]) of CDW are generated. This amount is expected to grow significantly when the first round of mass buildings erected in the 1990s starts to be demolished. In this study, a dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) is conducted for Beijing's urban housing system, with the demand for the stock of housing floor area taken as the driver. The subsequent effects on construction and demolition flows of housing floor area and the concurrent consumption and waste streams of concrete are investigated for Beijing from 1949 and projected through 2050. The per capita floor area (PCFA) is a key factor shaping the material stock of housing. Observations in Beijing, the Netherlands, and Norway indicate that PCFA has a strong correlation with the local gross domestic product (GDP). The lifetime of dwellings is one of the most important variables influencing future CDWgeneration. Three scenarios, representing the current trend extension, high GDP growth, and lengthening the lifetime of dwellings, are analyzed. The simulation results show that CDW will rise, unavoidably. A higher growth rate of GDP and the consequent PCFA will worsen the situation in the distant future. Prolonging the lifetime of dwellings can postpone the arrival of the peak CDW. From a systematic view, recycling is highly recommended for long-term sustainable CDW management.	Dynamic Material Flow Analysis for Strategic Construction and Demolition Waste ...	Hu, Mingming; van der Voet, Ester; Huppes, Gjalt	Journal Article	academic	2010	Beijing Case Study China City Construction Materials Future Scenario Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Research and Analysis Time series Waste Zotero import Zotero2
Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthesis The continued increase in the use of metals over the twentieth century has led to a substantial shift from geological resource base to metal stocks in society. Such a shift raises social, economic, and environmental issues that require quantifying the amount of stock of 'metal capital' utilized by society. This report reviews the relevant literature on this topic. From a compilation of 54 studies, it is clear that a reasonably detailed picture of in-use stocks and in-use lifetimes exists for only five metals: aluminium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc, and in only two cases have spatial stock allocations been performed. Limited data suggest that per capita in-use stocks in more-developed countries typically exceed those in less-developed countries by factors of five to ten. Sparse but potentially useful in-use stock information exists for nineteen other metals. There is a little information on stocks in government repositories, and essentially none on stocks in 'hibernation', in tailings repositories, in industrial stock- piles, or in landfills, nor on typical in-use life-times for almost the entire periodic table of the elements. Outflows from in-use stocks, potentially useful for determining future rates of reuse, can currently be reliably estimated only for aluminium, copper, iron, and lead. This is the first of six reports on the stocks and flows of metals, the last of which will draw upon the first five to address criticality and policy options related to the sustainability of metals.	Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthesis	Graedel, TE	Report	reports	2010	Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Substance Flow Analysis (SFA)
Aluminum Stock and Flows in U.S. Passenger Vehicles and Implications for Energy Use In this article, a methodology to model the annual stock and flows of aluminum in a key end‐use sector in the United States—passenger vehicles—from 1975-2035 is described. This dynamic material flow model has enabled analysis of the corresponding energy embodied in automotive aluminum as well as the cumulative aluminum production energy demand. The former was found to be significant at 2.6 × 109 gigajoules (GJ) in year 2008 under baseline assumptions. From 2008-2035, the cumulative energy required to produce aluminum to be used in vehicles is estimated at 7.8 × 109 GJ. Although the automotive aluminum stock is expected to increase by 1.8 times by 2035, the corresponding energy embodied is not expected to grow as rapidly due to efficiency improvements in aluminum processing over time. The model's robustness was tested by checking the sensitivity of the results to variations in key input assumptions, including future vehicle sales, lifetimes, and scrap recovery. Sensitivity of energy embodied in automotive aluminum to changes in aluminum production efficiency and aluminum applications within the vehicle were also explored. Using more recycled aluminum or improving the energy efficiency of aluminum production at a faster rate can lower production energy demands. However, aggressive and sustained changes are needed beginning today to achieve meaningful reductions. This may potentially be countered by increased use of stamped aluminum in vehicles.	Aluminum Stock and Flows in U.S. Passenger Vehicles and Implications ...	Lynette Cheah	Journal Article	academic	2009	Aluminum Energy Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Time series
Global mapping of Al, Cu, Fe, and Zn in-use stocks and in-ground resources Human activity has become a significant geomorphic force in modern times, resulting in unprecedented movements of material around Earth. An essential constituent of this material movement, the major industrial metals aluminium, copper, iron, and zinc in the human-built environment are mapped globally at 1-km nominal resolution for the year 2000 and compared with the locations of present-day in-ground resources. While the maps of in-ground resources generated essentially combine available databases, the mapping methodology of in-use stocks relies on the linear regression between gross domestic product and both in-use stock estimates and the Nighttime Lights of the World dataset. As the first global maps of in-use metal stocks, they reveal that a full 25% of the world's Fe, Al, Cu, and Zn in-use deposits are concentrated in three bands: (i) the Eastern seaboard from Washington, D.C. to Boston in the United States, (ii) England, Benelux into Germany and Northern Italy, and (iii) South Korea and Japan. This pattern is consistent across all metals investigated. In contrast, the global maps of primary metal resources reveal these deposits are more evenly distributed between the developed and developing worlds, with the distribution pattern differing depending on the metal. This analysis highlights the magnitude at which inground metal resources have been translocated to in-use stocks, largely from highly concentrated but globally dispersed in-ground deposits to more diffuse in-use stocks located primarily in developed urban regions.	Global mapping of Al, Cu, Fe, and Zn in-use stocks ...	J.N. Rauch	Journal Article	academic	2009	Geographic Information System (GIS) Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Multi-scale National Rural Single point in time Sub-national Urban
Caluculation of the in-use stock of materials in urban with nocturnal light image Material in-use stock, which represents a future potential of material recovery and waste, is an important factor in analysis of resources recycling. In-use stock is usually estimated using some statistics. In developing countries, however, such statistical data is not usually available to estimate in-use stock of materials. Therefore an alternative method is required in these countries. In this paper, a novel approach was shown to estimate a distribution of material, e.g. copper, etc. stock in the world, using above ground light images taken from space. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) / Operational Linescan System (OLS) nocturnal images are converted into the cloud-free visible light distribution image on all over the earth. The visible light is used exclusively in residential, commercial, industrial, public facilities and roadways. In previous studies, the relation between the strength of nocturnal light and human activity (e.g. population, GDP, energy utilization) has been studied. If we assumed that wherever the light exists the conducting material, such as copper should be used, the in-stock of materials can be estimated from the net of the light. In this study, the cloud-free DMSP composites of 1 km spatial resolution data generated by National Geophysical Data Center in U.S.A were applied on mapping a distribution of material stock. The net of light in an area were calculated from the image data, as an Illuminated Urban Area (IUA) dome volume. As a result, IUA dome volume shows strong correlation with copper stock. DMSP images may prove to be a useful tool to know in-use stock distributions in regions. This method is more suitable for the analysis concerning to developing countries where statistics may not be available. Published in: 2009 Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event, Shanghai, China	Caluculation of the in-use stock of materials in urban with ...	Matsuno, Yasunari; Takahashi, Kazue Ichino; Adachi, Yoshihiro; Nakamura, Jiro; Elvidge, Chris	Conference Paper	None	2009	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban
Lead In-Use Stock The 20th century was a time of rapidly escalating use of lead (Pb). As a consequence, the standing stock of lead is now substantial. By linking lead extraction and use to estimates of product lifetimes and recycling, we have derived an estimate of the standing stock of lead throughout the century by top‐down techniques. We find that the stock of in‐use lead is almost entirely made up of batteries (68%), lead sheet (10%), and lead pipe (10%). Globally, about 200 teragrams (Tg) Pb was mined in the 20th century, and about 25 Tg Pb now makes up the in‐use stock, so some 87% has been lost over time. Nonetheless, about 11% of all lead entering use was added to in‐use stock in 2000, so the stock continues to increase each year. Currently, most of the stock is in Europe (32%), North America (32%), and Asia (24%). On a per capita basis, the global stock is about 5.6 kilograms (kg) Pb, and regional in‐use stock ranges from 2.0 kg Pb (Africa) to 19.7 kg Pb (Europe). From a sustainability perspective, we estimate that the global lead resource is around 415 Tg Pb. Were the entire world to receive the services of lead at the level of the developed countries, some 130 Tg Pb would be needed, so there do not appear to be significant long‐term limitations to the lead supply.	Lead In-Use Stock	Mao, Jiansu and Graedel, T. E.	Journal Article	academic	2009	Case Study Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Time series
Combined MFA-LCA for Analysis of Wastewater Pipeline Networks Oslo's wastewater pipeline network has an aging stock of concrete, steel, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipelines, which calls for a good portion of expenditures to be directed toward maintenance and investments in rehabilitation. The stock, as it is in 2008, is a direct consequence of the influx of pipelines of different sizes, lengths, and materials of construction into the system over the years. A material flow analysis (MFA) facilitates an analysis of the environmental impacts associated with the manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, and retirement of the pipelines. The forecast of the future flows of materials—which, again, is highly interlinked with the historic flows—provides insight into the likely future environmental impacts. This will enable decision makers keen on alleviating such impacts to think along the lines of eco‐friendlier processes and technologies or simply different ways of doing business. Needless to say, the operation and maintenance phase accounts for the major bulk of emissions and calls for energy‐efficient approaches to this phase of the life cycle, even as manufacturers strive to make their processes energy‐efficient and attempt to include captive renewable energy in their total energy consumption. This article focuses on the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions associated with the wastewater pipeline network in the city of Oslo.	Combined MFA-LCA for Analysis of Wastewater Pipeline Networks	G. Venkatesh, Johanne Hammervold, and Helge Brattebø	Journal Article	academic	2009	Case Study Concrete Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Hybrid MFA-LCA Material Stock Analysis (MSA) PVC Steel Time series Urban Various Materials Wastewater
Urban stock over time: spatial material stock analysis using 4d-GIS A huge amount of construction material is required in urban areas for developing and maintaining buildings and infrastructure. Ageing stocks, which were built during a period of rapid growth in Japan (1955-1973), will cause a new waste flow in the near future. In order to assess urban metabolism with regard to building and infrastructure, it is necessary to understand change in its material accumulation both ‘spatially' and ‘temporally'. In this analysis, material accumulation over time is elucidated using four-dimensional Geographical Information Systems (4d-GIS) data at an urban scale. An approximately 8 km2 urban area of Salford in Manchester, UK, and 11 km2 of Wakayama City centre, Japan, were selected as case study sites. In this analysis, the material stock of buildings, roadways and railways was estimated locally over time, using a 4d-GIS database: (1) to find the spatial distribution of construction materials over time, (2) to estimate the demolition curve of buildings based on characteristics of an area, and (3) to clarify material accumulation with vertical location, such as above and below ground, from the viewpoint of recyclability. By estimation of the demolition curve, the life span of buildings in an urban area was found to be shorter than the national average respectively at both sites: 81 years in the urban area of Salford compared with 128 years for the UK; and 28 years in Wakayama City centre compared with the Japanese national average of 40 years. In 2004, 47% of total construction material was stocked in underground infrastructure in Wakayama City centre.	Urban stock over time: spatial material stock analysis using 4d-GIS	Tanikawa, Hiroki; Hashimoto, Seiji	Journal Article	academic	2009	Case Study Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series Urban Zotero import Zotero2
Detailed assessment of structural characteristics of Turkish RC building stock for loss assessment models Assessment of the seismic vulnerability of the building stock in the earthquake-prone Marmara region of Turkey is of growing importance since such information is needed for reliable estimation of the losses that possible future earthquakes are likely to induce. The outcome of such loss assessment exercises can be used in planning of urban/regional-scale earthquake protection strategies; this is a priority in Turkey, particularly following the destructive earthquakes of 1999. Considering the size of the building inventory, Istanbul and its surrounding area is a case for which it is not easy to determine the structural properties and characteristics of the building stock. In this paper, geometrical, functional and material properties of the building stock in the northern Marmara Region, particularly around Istanbul, have been investigated and evaluated for use in loss estimation models and other types of statistic- or probability-based studies. In order to do that, the existing reinforced concrete (RC) stock has been classified as ‘compliant' or ‘non-compliant' buildings, dual (frame-wall) or frame structures and emergent or embedded-beam systems. In addition to the statistical parameters such as mean values, standard deviations, etc., probability density functions and their goodness-of-fit have also been investigated for all types of parameters. Functionalities such as purpose of use and floor area properties have been defined. Concrete properties of existing and recently constructed buildings and also characteristics of 220 and 420MPa types of steel have been documented. Finally, the financial effects of retrofitting operations and damage repair have been investigated.	Detailed assessment of structural characteristics of Turkish RC building stock ...	Bal, İ. Engin; Crowley, Helen; Pinho, Rui; Gülay, F. Gülten	Journal Article	academic	2008	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Sub-national
In-Use Stocks of Metals: Status and Implications The continued increase in the use of metals over the 20th century has led to the phenomenon of a substantial shift in metal stocks from the lithosphere to the anthroposphere. Such a shift raises social, economic, and environmental issues that cannot be addressed without quantifying the amount of stock of ″metal capital″ utilized by society. Estimation of the inuse stock of metals has occurred for at least 70 years, with over70%of the publications occurring after the year 2000. Despite the long history, this is the first critical review to consolidate current findings, critique methods, and discuss future avenues of research. Only aluminum, copper, iron, lead, and zinc have been studied to any extent. Nonetheless, it is clear that for the more-developed countries, the typical per capita in-use metal stock is between 10 and 15 t (mostly iron). Comparison of the per capita stocks in more-developed countries with those in less-developed countries suggests that if the total world population were to enjoy the same per capita metal stock levels as the more-developed countries, using a similar suite of technologies, the amount of global in-use metal stocks required would be 3-9 times those existing at present.	In-Use Stocks of Metals: Status and Implications	M. Gerst and T.E. Graedel	Journal Article	academic	2008	Geographic Information System (GIS) Global Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Multi-scale National Time series
Dynamic Modeling of In-Use Cement Stocks in the United States A dynamic substance‐flow model is developed to characterize the stocks and flows of cement utilized during the 20th century in the United States, using the generic cement life cycle as a systems boundary. The motivation for estimating historical inventories of cement stocks and flows is to provide accurate estimates of contemporary cement in‐use stocks in U.S. infrastructure and future discards to relevant stakeholders in U.S. infrastructure, such as the federal and state highway administrators, departments of transportation, public and private utilities, and the construction and cement industries. Such information will assist in planning future rehabilitation projects and better life cycle management of infrastructure systems. In the present policy environment of climate negotiations, estimates of in‐use cement infrastructure can provide insights about to what extent built environment can act as a carbon sink over its lifetime. The rate of addition of new stock, its composition, and the repair of existing stock are key determinants of infrastructure sustainability. Based upon a probability of failure approach, a dynamic stock and flow model was developed utilizing three statistical lifetime distributions—Weibull, gamma, and lognormal—for each cement end‐use. The model‐derived estimate of the 'in‐use' cement stocks in the United States is in the range of 4.2 to 4.4 billion metric tons (gigatonnes, Gt). This indicates that 82% to 87% of cement utilized during the last century is still in use. On a per capita basis, this is equivalent to 14.3 to 15.0 tonnes of in‐use cement stock per person. The in‐use cement stock per capita has doubled over the last 50 years, although the rate of growth has slowed.	Dynamic Modeling of In-Use Cement Stocks in the United States	Amit Kapur	Journal Article	academic	2008	Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Time series United States Various Materials Zotero import Zotero2
Exploration of Urban Stocks The transition of the built environment is a key issue of sustainable development. The paper describes a methodology based on material flow analysis (MFA) to explore material stocks in urban systems in order to make these materials available for urban mining. Switzerland is taken as an example. For the management on a national or regional scale exploration steps on lower scales are crucial. MFA is combined with architectural know how and approaches inspired by geosciences (urban geology). Buildings and infrastructure are the main processes, since they are the main carriers of material stocks within the urban system. For the exploration of urban stocks in buildings, the combination of material contents which are related to specific construction systems and layouts of rooms with their frequency of occurrence is introduced as 'ark-house method'. The focus on the genesis of the built environment gives the basis for future development options by scenario techniques.	Exploration of Urban Stocks	Lichtensteiger, Thomas; Baccini, Peter	Journal Article	academic	2008	Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Urban Zotero import Zotero2
Copper and zinc recycling in Australia: potential quantities and policy options This paper presents relevant data for industry and governmental policy makers with the aim of increasing the recycling rate of end-of-life copper and zinc in Australia in a technically and economically feasible way. The methodology used to quantify and spatially distribute end-of-life flows of copper and zinc is based on existing and anticipated in-use stocks, their residence times, and their historical and anticipated future evolution. Australia currently (ca. 2000) generates about 72 Gg/year and 57 Gg/year of end-of-life copper and zinc, respectively. Some 70% of all discarded copper and 40% of all discarded zinc generated in Australia are currently being recycled. A detailed assessment shows that about 75% of all end-of-life material in Australia comes from the three states New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. In Australia, about 70e75% of waste copper and waste zinc is generated in urban areas. Residential applications account for about 40% (copper) and 60% (zinc) of the generated discards; commercial and industrial applications account for the remainder. By 2030, the discard flows are predicted to increase by about 105% and 155%, to 150 Gg Cu/year and 145 Gg Zn/year, providing substantially increased opportunities for recovery and re-use. Priority targets for the improvement of copper and zinc recycling in Australia are buildings under renovation, urban infrastructure, the transportation sector, and also consumer and business durables. Urban centres are particularly attractive locations for recycling facilities, especially in Perth and Adelaide.	Copper and zinc recycling in Australia: potential quantities and policy ...	D. van Beers, A. Kapur, T.E. Graedel	Journal Article	academic	2007	Adelaide Australia Brisbane City Conservation of mass Copper Future Scenario Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Melbourne Multi-scale National Perth Research and Analysis Rural Single point in time Sydney Urban Zinc
Dynamic material flow analysis for Norway's dwelling stock The architecture, engineering and construction industry is a major producer of waste, and a major consumer of primary materials. This study presents a method for analysing the dynamics of both floor area and material use in residential housing. The population's demand for housing represents the driver in the system, and the subsequent effects on stocks and flows of residential floor area and building materials in Norway are investigated from 1900 to the projected demands for 2100. Results show that knowledge about past activity levels is important in projecting future levels. Scenarios are applied to the input parameters in the dynamic model to investigate the impacts of changes in these, including variations in material usage (concrete and wood) and material density. All but one scenario suggest a continued increase in the residential housing stock, although at diminishing growth rates, and a substantial increase in demolition, renovation and construction activity in the last half of the present century.	Dynamic material flow analysis for Norway's dwelling stock	Bergsdal, Håvard and Brattebø, Helge and Bohne, Rolf A. and Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2007	Case Study Construction Materials Future Scenario Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National Norway Time series Zotero import Zotero2
Metal capital sustaining a North American city: Iron and copper in New Haven, CT A detailed inventory shows that an average resident of the City of New Haven depends on a per capita capital stock of 9200 kg/c of iron and 144 kg/c of copper in the city infrastructure, buildings, transportation systems, and equipment. Of the iron stock 28% is in items such as rail cars and ships in ocean trade not permanently within the city, and 22% is devoted to receiving and delivering oil fuel to the city and its surrounding communities. Copper is principally used in the distribution of electric power and in water piping within buildings. The city's 9200 kg/c of iron stock-in-use is less than the 13,000 kg/c national average due to New Haven's lack of heavy industry and relatively small number of large buildings. The 144 kg/c of copper stock-in-use is only 58% of the overall value for the United States, but is comparable to that in cities such as Stockholm, Sweden. Attainment of a level of iron and copper services with contemporary technology in less developed countries to the level enjoyed in New Haven would require consumption of the presently identified world copper resources.	Metal capital sustaining a North American city: Iron and copper ...	Konstantine Drakonakis, Katherine Rostkowski, Jason Rauch, T.E. Graedel, R.B. Gordon	Journal Article	academic	2007	City Conservation of mass Copper Iron Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) New Haven Research and Analysis Single point in time United States Urban
Calculation of the 'Net Additions to Stock' Indicator for the Czech Republic Using a Direct Method Net additions to stock (NAS) are an indicator based on economy-wide material flow accounting and analysis. NAS, a measure of the physical growth rate of an economy, can be used for estimates of future waste flows. It is calculated using two methods: The indirect method of calculation is a simple difference between all input and output flows, whereas the direct method involves measuring the amounts of materials added to particular categories of physical stock and the amounts of waste flows from these stocks. The study described in this article had one leading objective: to make available direct NAS data for the Czech Republic, which could later be used for predicting future waste flows. Two additional objectives emerged from the first: (1) to develop a method for direct NAS calculation from data availability in the Czech Republic; (2) to calculate NAS directly, compare the results with those achieved in indirect NAS calculation, and discuss the identified differences. The NAS for the Czech Republic calculated by the direct method is equal to approximately 65 million tonnes on average in 2000-2002 and is approximately 27% lower than the NAS acquired by the indirect method of calculation. The actual values of directly calculated NAS and its uncertainties suggest that the indirect NAS is more likely to be an overestimation than an underestimation. Durables account for about 2% of the total direct NAS, whereas the rest is attributed to infrastructure and buildings. The direct NAS is dominated by nonmetal construction commodities such as building stone and bricks, which equal approximately 89% of the total direct NAS. Calculation of NAS by the direct method has been proved to be feasible in the Czech Republic. Moreover, uncertainties related to direct NAS are lower than those related to indirectly acquired NAS.	Calculation of the 'Net Additions to Stock' Indicator for the ...	Jan Kovanda	Journal Article	academic	2007	Economy-Wide Material Flow Analysis (EW-MFA) Indicators - general Material Stock Analysis (MSA) National
Spatial characterisation of multi-level in-use copper and zinc stocks in Australia A methodology has been developed to characterise the in-use stocks of copper and zinc at a variety of spatial levels. The approach employs representative concentrations of copper and zinc in their main in-use reservoirs (which account for virtually all the metal put into service) together with geographic information system (GIS) data sets of the spatial locations and densities of these reservoirs. The authors have applied this methodology to Australia at four spatial levels: central city, urban region, states/territories, and country, to produce what is believed to be the first multi-level spatial characterisations of the in-use stocks of technological materials. The results are presented quantitatively and as a series of stock density maps for Inner Sydney, Sydney Metro, all Australian states/territories, and Australia itself. The total stocks in Australia are estimated at about 4.3 Tg Cu (4.3 thousand million kg) and 3.8 Tg Zn (3.8 thousand million kg), or about 240 kg Cu/capita and 205 kg Zn/capita. A statistical analysis of the data shows that the metal stock density at a given spatial level is largely determined by a small number of high-density components at the next lower level. The spatial analysis of the in-use stocks indicates that 50% of all copper and zinc stock resides in just 10% of Australia's local government areas. The largest stocks occur in large urban regions, which can contain copper and zinc densities more than a hundred times higher than rural areas. These regions are expected to be major Australian 'metal mines' in the future.	Spatial characterisation of multi-level in-use copper and zinc stocks in ...	D. van Beers and Thomas E. Graedel	Journal Article	academic	2007	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Multi-scale National Rural Single point in time Sub-national Urban Zotero import
Copper In-Use Stock and Copper Scrap in the State of Connecticut, USA During the summer of 2006, the standing in-use stocks and associated discards of copper, centered about the year 2000, were quantified for the State of Connecticut. The methodology, results, and discussion are published here in three parts: Part A. In-Use Stocks of Copper in the State of Connecticut Part B. Discard Flows from In-Use Stocks of Copper in the State of Connecticut Part C. Recycling Rate of Old Scrap Copper in the State of Connecticut Among the most important and interesting results are as follows: 1) A 'bottom-up' assessment of the in-use stocks of copper in the State of Connecticut, circa 2000, yields an overall result of approximately 540 Gg (thousand metric tons) of copper, or 157 kg for every person in the State. Buildings make up the largest category with 53% of the total, with residential buildings as the largest sub-category. 2) The discard flows of copper from in-use stocks were quantified by applying a lifetime analysis to the in-use stock estimates of copper in Connecticut. A total copper mass of 17 Gg/yr (thousand metric tons per year), or 5.1 kg/(capita*year),was discarded from inuse stocks at the beginning of the 21st century. Renovation and demolition debris make up the largest category with 36% of the total, followed by waste from electronic and electrical equipment (26%), transportation (23%), and infrastructure (14%). 3) The recovery rate, recycling efficiency, and recycling rate for copper from in-use stock discards were quantified for the State of Connecticut for the year 2000. With a recovery rate of 84%, and recycling efficiency of 75%, the overall recycling rate was found to be 63%. Neglecting sewage sludge, the lowest recycling rate occurred in endof- life vehicles and waste from electronic and electrical equipment (45%). A rough estimate combining this old scrap recycling rate with that of new scrap puts the overall recycling rate of copper in Connecticut at approximately 70%.	Copper In-Use Stock and Copper Scrap in the State of ...	J. Rauch, M. Eckelman, R. Gordon	Report	reports	2007	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Rural Single point in time United States of America Urban
Stock dynamics for forecasting material flows—Case study for housing in The Netherlands This article discusses the role of lifestyle in physical material accounting and introduces a new method for simultaneously determining national or regional resource demand and waste generation through estimations of the population and its lifestyle, which is manifested in the stocks of service providing goods, their composition and lifetimes. Improving our comprehension of the stocks in use is essential for environmental policy making because (1) they are becoming the most important resource providers, (2) they are important drivers for resource and energy consumption as well as waste and emission generation, and (3) their magnitudes and dynamics are the parts of the material cycles that is usually least understood. A generic dynamic material flow analysis model is presented and applied for the diffusion of concrete in the Dutch dwelling stock for the period of 1900–2100. Simulation results are illustrated for a standard scenario and a parameter variation. The results show that (1) construction and demolition flows follow a cyclical behaviour, (2) the cycles of construction and demolition flows are phase displaced in the first half of the 21st century, with decreasing construction and increasing demolition, and (3) growth of the dwelling stock is becoming increasingly more material intensive as a growing amount of material is used for replacements. The presented stock dynamics approach can principally be applied for any anthropogenic material stock; however, it is most useful for the examination of metabolic consequences of diffusion processes of durable and fixed capital stocks.	Stock dynamics for forecasting material flows—Case study for housing in ...	Müller, Daniel B.	Journal Article	academic	2006	Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Time series Urban Zotero import Zotero2
The Application of Material Flow Analysis for the Evaluation of the Recovery Potential of Secondary Metals in Australia The rate of metal use has risen rapidly in recent decades resulting in increasing amounts of landfilled mining wastes and produced metals being stockpiled as in-use products. These two reservoirs will become important for their metal content recovery over the next decades as a result of population growth, increasing per capita resource use, and anticipated metal price increases due to supply limitations. This paper discusses the potential and availability of secondary metals for recovery in Australia, illustrated by research results and case-study examples for copper and zinc. Barriers and enabling mechanisms for enhanced utilisation of secondary (non-virgin) resources are evaluated against the mining of virgin resources with the aim to present decision support guidelines to industry and government for resource policies and practices, and technology innovations. Presented at the 4th Australian LCA Conference; Sydney.	The Application of Material Flow Analysis for the Evaluation of ...	D. van Beers, R. van Berkel, T.E. Graedel	Conference Paper	None	2005	Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Multi-scale National Rural Single point in time Urban
Future Redistribution of Cadmium to Arable Swedish Soils: A Substance Stock Analysis This article describes a stock-based methodology designed to analyze the redistribution of substance stocks to environmental compartments. The methodology is then applied to investigate the requirements and possibilities for avoiding undesired future accumulation of cadmium in Swedish arable soils. A prospective decomposition analysis of human cadmium mobilization is thus performed to estimate the potential amounts that can end up in arable soils through different flows from the cadmium stocks identified. The requirements for cadmium abatement to achieve prescribed goals for accumulation limits are determined and compared with past and current achievements and with the varying qualities of possible abatement methods. A stock-based methodology adds some important information to traditional scenario techniques based on substance flow analysis. The most obvious is that the fact that stocks are limited actually matters for long-term accumulation of cadmium in arable land. The methodology may also contribute certain indicators, for instance, on abatement requirements, which could serve as a complement to regulation and local quality measures on specific flows at an aggregated policy level. The stock perspective also sheds new light on actions such as increased recycling. Concerning the specific example used in the study, it is possible to achieve a future addition of cadmium in Swedish agricultural soils that is significantly lower than in the past, although the amount depends to a large degree on activities and policies outside Sweden. Considerable uncertainty exists regarding future depositions from air, especially that from distributed small-scale emissions from fuel burning and reemission of already deposited cadmium from natural media. Measures must also be taken to guarantee a continued low addition in the form of mineral phosphorus fertilizers.	Future Redistribution of Cadmium to Arable Swedish Soils: A Substance ...	Sten Karlsson	Journal Article	academic	2004	Case Study Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Metals National Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Sweden
The Magnitude and Spatial Distribution of In-Use Zinc Stocks in Cape Town, South Africa Cape Town is a major urban area that possesses large reservoirs of in-use zinc. These reservoirs will gradually become available for re-use as the zinc-containing products become obsolete, should re-use prove technologically and economically feasible. Hence, we have identified and quantified the principal zinc uses in Cape Town and estimated their lifetime, using a model incorporating Geographic Information System (GIS) software. We estimated the in-use stock at approximately 57 Gg and predicted end-of-life flows for several decades into the future. By 2030, we anticipate an in-use zinc stock more than twice as high as currently present. Our GIS analysis demonstrated that although the per capita stock of in-use zinc is lowest for poor community areas, these areas have higher spatial densities of zinc than wealthy areas because of the very high housing and population densities. If all end-of-life zinc is reprocessed, rather than discarded as waste or transferred outside the region, it could supply up to 50% of Cape Town's zinc demand over the next three decades.	The Magnitude and Spatial Distribution of In-Use Zinc Stocks in ...	D. van Beers and T.E. Graedel	Journal Article	academic	2004	Cape Town Future Scenario Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Single point in time Urban
Visualization of Regional Material Flow using Over-flow Potential Maps Construction materials are stocked as structures in some years, but overage and unnecessary structures can cause new material flow to be wasted. In the near future, a huge overage stock that was built during a period of rapid growth will cause the new flow to become waste. Therefore, it's important to see "where" and "how much" material flow may emerge in any given city. An Over-flow Potential Map, or OPM, offers a way to visualize Material Flow related to the construction sector. In the course of estimating regional Material Flow using GIS, many map layers must be calculated. An OPM is produced by taking the 'recycled In-flow layer' away from the 'Outflow layer'. The Over-flow potential is concerned with the age of structures, construction materials used, and maintenance needed. OPM can show both the density of over-flow material, and the contents of over-flow in cities.	Visualization of Regional Material Flow using Over-flow Potential Maps	Tanikawa, Hiroki; Sakamoto, Tetsunori; Hashimoto, Seiji; Moriguchi, Yuichi	Report	reports	2004	Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Sub-national
The Magnitude and Spatial Distribution of In-use Copper Stocks in Cape Town, South Africa As a major urban centre, the city of Cape Town possesses a large reservoir of in-use copper. As the metal's uses become obsolete, the copper will gradually become available for re-use, should that prove technically feasible and economically desirable. To evaluate this resource, we identified the principal uses of the metal in the city and its surroundings, quantified them, and estimated their in-use lifetime. We used this information to estimate in-use stock at about 110 Gg (110 million kg) copper and to predict end-of-life flows for several decades into the future. A model, using geographic information system (GIS) software, was developed to assess contemporary stocks spatially and to predict future stocks according to selected uses. The largest stocks are in the area formerly administered by the Central Cape Town municipal council, that is expected also to be the principal copper reservoir in the future. Impoverished areas turned out to have higher spatial densities of copper than wealthy suburbs, because of their high-density housing. The total stock of in-use copper in Cape Town today appears to be less than 1% of South Africa's mineral reserves of the metal, but its recovery and re-use appears to be justified because of its relatively low associated environmental cost. We conclude that if all end-of-life copper is reprocessed, rather than discarded or transferred outside the region, it could supply up to 60% of Cape Town's copper demand over the next three decades.	The Magnitude and Spatial Distribution of In-use Copper Stocks in ...	Van Beers, D and Graedel, TE	Journal Article	academic	2003	Case Study Copper Future Scenario Geographic Information System (GIS) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) UM review paper import Urban
Predicting future emissions based on characteristics of stocks Future flows of emissions and waste from society to the environment can be estimated either as a percentage of the future stock or as a delayed input. The first approach is based on a static model where concentration is the driving force and is generally preferable for ease of calculation. The second approach is based on a dynamic model, where ageing is the driving force and knowledge of the life span is needed. We present the conditions under which the calculations based on a static model will produce acceptable approximations for a dynamic system.	Predicting future emissions based on characteristics of stocks	van der Voet, Ester; Kleijn, René; Huele, Ruben; Ishikawa, Masanobu; Verkuijlen, Evert	Journal Article	academic	2002	Case Study Emissions (must be merged with Emissions) Future Scenario Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Research and Analysis Waste Zotero import Zotero2
Escalating trends in the urban metabolism of Hong Kong: 1971-1997 Urban metabolism measures quantitatively a city's load on the natural environment. We update the Newcombe et al. (3) pioneering study of Hong Kong's urban metabolism in 1971, highlighting trends in resource consumption and waste generation. Per capita food, water and materials consumption have surged since the early 1970s by 20%, 40%, and 149%, respectively. Tremendous pollution has accompanied this growing affluence and materialism, and total air emissions, CO2 outputs, municipal solid wastes, and sewage discharges have risen by 30%, 250%, 245%, and 153%. As a result, systemic overload of land, atmospheric and water systems has occurred. While some strategies to tackle deteriorating environmental quality have succeeded, greater and more far-reaching changes in consumer behavior and government policy are needed if Hong Kong is to achieve its stated goal of becoming “a truly sustainable city” in the 21st century.	Escalating trends in the urban metabolism of Hong Kong: 1971-1997	Warren-Rhodes, Kimberley and Koenig, Albert	Journal Article	academic	2001	Biomass Case Study Energy Energy Balance Food Island Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Nitrogen Phosphorus Time series UM review paper import Urban Various Materials Wastewater Water
Dynamic substance flow analysis: the delaying mechanism of stocks, with the case of PVC in Sweden Today's stocks are tomorrow's emissions and waste flows. As a result of the time lag introduced by the buffering function of the stock of materials and products in society environmental problem flows which seem to be under control can easily rebound. In this paper an example is given of how signal processing can be used in dynamic Substance Flow Analysis for estimating the future generation of waste and emissions from present societal stocks. An approach is outlined to estimate the outflow of waste products from stocks on the basis of assumptions on the shape of the distribution describing the inflow of new products, the average life span of the products, and the life-span distribution. To exemplify the approach we used a theoretical case of PVC in Sweden. It was found that the delaying mechanisms of the stocks can make the outcome counterintuitive. Furthermore, the chosen shape of the input-distribution function has the most influence on the predicted outflows, especially in the case of possible fashion-type (exponentially increasing) markets. The choice of the shape of the inflow distribution could, therefore, be based on qualitative knowledge of the market of the different products. The life-span distribution appears to have a more subtle influence on the height of the peaks and the time that they occur. So far only a normal distribution has been considered; more research is recommended into other types of distribution.	Dynamic substance flow analysis: the delaying mechanism of stocks, with ...	Kleijn, René; Huele, Ruben; van der Voet, Ester	Journal Article	academic	2000	Case Study Indicators - general Material Stock Analysis (MSA) PVC Research and Analysis Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) Sweden Zotero import Zotero2
The metabolism of a city: the case of Hong Kong Demographic trends suggest that up to 5000 new cities of half a million in population each may be required between 1975 and 2000. In order to examine the implications of this for demands on resources, a detailed assessment has been made of the patterns of flow and the end-use of energy and of some selected materials in the city-state of Hong Kong. This assessment is used as a basis for extrapolating the future resource requirements of other urban development along similar lines. The calculations indicate that the capital and recurrent energy costs of the predicted urbanization would amount to more than five times the 1973 world consumption of energy.	The metabolism of a city: the case of Hong Kong	Newcombe, Ken and Kalma, Jetse D and Aston, Alan R	Journal Article	academic	1978	Case Study Construction Materials Energy Balance Food Future Scenario Island Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Material Stock Analysis (MSA) Single point in time UM review paper import Urban

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